Police Diversity Essay

Racial discrimination is an issue that so many professionals know about. Dealing with it may be the problem, but attempts to deal with it have been shown since the early times when it was noticed. According to Zeisel, there is evidence that the federal courts of appeal have been urged to take action on the administration of death sentences. Zeises notes that the death sentences in the federal courts, which he writes as a Florida experience, were administered discriminating against the black people (1981). In his writing, Zeisel states that two petitioners had provided evidence showing that the black offenders were being discriminated. The petitioners are, Maxwell V. Bishop who provided evidence to show that the black offenders were being discriminated against, and a petitioner in Spinkerllink v. Wainwright, who provided data showing that murderers of the white people were being discriminated against. This report by the petitioner from Spinkerllink indicated that there were high chances of murderers of the white to end up in death rows than murderers of the black people Zeisel, 1981). This though never received any action as the courts are noted to have refused to obtain evidence of racial discrimination. Zeisel notes that the data available in the criminal justice system of Florida, prove that there have been such kinds of discrimination (1981). This is a case that was identified in the 1980’s, but does it exist today? Has the system changed? Racial discrimination has been a major problem in most federal courts with most minorities, especially the black people, facing cruel judgments than the white people. Some reports indicate that more blacks are found behind bars than whites considering their number in the total American population. The people are few in number, yet if the number of people in prison is compared to the white people in prison, they are almost half the whites total. This is the aim of this paper. Analysis of data about arrests made in Florida will be done to determine if the minorities are arrested more and if still, there is racial discrimination. Data to be analyzed was obtained from the Florida department of Law enforcement, which was recorded in the year 2004 by UCR. Analysis Do minority commit more crimes? According to the statistics on arrests by age and race in Florida, there are several offenses for which the white, Indians and the black people were arrested. Whites constituted a bigger group of people arrested with a total of 672,987, this is followed by the black people who were a total of 351,871. The total Indians arrested were 1,496 (Department of Law Enforcement, 2005). There are some offenses that no Indian was arrested at all, for example bribery and embezzlement. Comparing this to the other groups, a total of 38 whites were arrested for bribery and 20 black people for the same offense. In the case of embezzlement, 363 blacks were arrested while 749 whites were arrested(Department of Law Enforcement, 2005. The offense categorized as miscellaneous had the highest number of offenders with 299, 442 white offenders, 159,378 black offenders and 1,034 Indian offenders. Drug arrest and simple assault also had high numbers of offenders. White people arrested for simple assault were 60, 018, while the black offenders in this case were 29,650, and the Indian offenders arrested for this case were 89. Drug arrests had these numbers; whites 84,829, black people 65,167 and Indians 112 (Department of Law Enforcement, 2005. These are examples from the data obtained about arrests made in the year 2004 under various offenses. Generally, the minority, which in this case is the black people, committed more crime. This is because the number of black people in Florida compared to the total population is small. Research reports show that in the year 2000, the percentage of non white people was 17. 8. The total population of Florida then was 15,982,824 (Schenker, 2008). From this data, it means that the non white people were only 2,844,943. This includes even the Indians. The population in the year 2007 is noted to be 18,680,367 indicating a growth of 16. 9%. This means that on average, each year, there was an approximate growth increase of 449,591 making an approximate of 177, 811,88 total population of Florida as at 2004. The rate of increase of the the non white population per year is approximated as 0. 31% (8,819) based on the fact that the total percentage increase of the total population by 2010 is 19. 8% (Schenker, 2008). This means that the total non white population based on the yearly increase was approximately 2,880,219 in 2004. If this population is compared with the approximated total population in 2004, then the number of non white people is small compared to white. This is proof that more blacks commit more crimes according to the data from the Florida Department of Law Enforcement. An example is in drug arrests. The number of white people arrested in this case is 84, 829. The total number of white people if approximated in the year 2004 was 14,900,969. From this the percentage of the white people arrested is 0. 569%. If this is compared to the number of black people arrested which is 65,167 on drug arrests, the percentage arrested to the nonwhite population is 2. 263%. This calculation is done using the total of non white people which includes Indians. If the number of Indians were excluded, then it means the total percentage would be higher. From this calculation, the number of black people arrested is higher by 1. 694%. How can this be judged? That these people commit more crimes? According to several sources, there have been so many cases of discrimination against black people living in America. This could just be a proof to it. It is though just an assumption since the number of people arrested cannot prove that the people are being discriminated against, though is a strong indication. Domnitiz and Knowles noted after research that black people were found to be guilty in police practices more than the white people. The economists note that â€Å"unbiased police practices as the police plans to do, can not prove that the guilt rates of motorists will be equalized among all races† This implies that however much the police try to show that they do not practice any racism in their policing, there is still knowledge by the public that there is racial discrimination in police practices. Domnitiz and Knowles indicated that motor vehicle search statistics show that the black motorists are singled out more that the white people (2006). The above case could therefore be considered as racial discrimination. Conclusion  From the above analysis, it is quite evident that there is racism. Just from the many sources that information is obtained, most of the cases are just indicating discrimination against the black people. In some sources though, black policemen were also found to be discriminative (Jaynes and Williams, 2007). This though is not indicated in the discussion but is an indication that even the black can discriminate against the other races. It may be therefore that, discrimination is due to the fact that the black are a minority. It is not easy to conclude this way though as there are other races in Florida too. What then can be the reason?

Types of Power in a Negotiation

What are the five types of power? Referent- power that comes from admiration or respect from others subject to such power Reward- power that comes from using rewards as a way to get things accomplished Legitimate- having a title that grants power, such as CEO Expert- power that comes from having supreme knowledge of the subject Coercive – using punishment as a way to get things done Consider a negotiation with which you are familiar. What parties were identified? Who had power or influence? Explain why.I personally don't find myself negotiating through situations on a daily basis, my work environment is very fast-paced and we usually make decisions very quickly. But I can definitely see these types of power struggles in a family situation or even a marriage. Personally I know I have used the reward and coercive powers to get my kids to do things. Being a parent also gives that legitimate power, I am MOM therefore what I say goes. Based on your experience with a negotiation, ho w does having one or more of the five types of power affect the dynamics of the negotiation?I would have to say that at work our team Leader beyond having legitimate power, he also has referent and expert power. During department meetings to discuss methods to improve our efficiency we all give our feedback and go back and forth with our ideas. It is his knowledge of the company and years of experience that usually provide the most efficient approach to improving our dept. Having the respect from everyone in the department as well as other co-workers initiates the negotiation towards a productive solution.

Corporate Finance Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Corporate Finance Assignment - Essay Example Mergers and acquisitions create the potential for strengthening the market as well as technological superiority for developing the overall growth of the company with benefits. The cost of production can also be reduced and operational efficiencies can be improved with an emphasis on enhancement of value of brand bringing more goodwill for an achievement that would be spell bounding and financial feasible as well as it is viable for growth (Pautler, 2003). The ideas of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) create an opportunity that would rekindle the companies involved to assess their financial strengths based on an analysis of their products of their money spinners. Some product lines of offering company might be substituted by the divestment of the business involved in that product lines for betterment of turnover because of the offeree company’s strength in the market. This is with certain product lines that would add value addition to the business of offering company. Alternatively, there are circumstances that other big product lines may be pursued by the offering company that contributes nearly 100% of their turnover. Such product lines are strengthened further by the scheme of mergers and acquisitions with the offerree company. Secondly, the advantage in financial terms for a substantial purchase consideration is on the cards while going ahead with the scheme of mergers and acquisitions. For instance, a company with product lines of industrial products contributing less than 15% of the turnover and 85% of the turnover being contributed by real estate in early 1980s could go ahead with a scheme of merger and acquisitions. Such a company after realizing its full potential with realizations of industrial products divested its stake with the scheme of mergers and acquisitions with their real estate arm of business to derive the full potential from both the product lines for a few years. Later when expansion was on the cards for big boom in real estate

Tesco clubcard Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Tesco clubcard - Assignment Example The main focus of the paper upon which conclusions have been made is the case study of Tesco Clubcard system that is entirely database driven. An introduction to the activities of Tesco has been given first to help understand where the database system comes in handy. Their various operations have been deeply analyzed to attempt to prove how their Clubcard has been key to their success, a technology built upon a database. In conclusion, the enviable long time success of Tesco has been found to have been greatly derived from the collection, storage and eventual analysis of this data about customers. The data stored has been a tool with which Tesco has realized staggering profits both locally and internationally. Although the paper acknowledges that there are few downsides to the use of databases it strongly concludes that due to the predominant benefits that Tesco has realized from use of Clubcard, databases are invaluable tools with immeasurable economic significance. Many will agree that we live in a society that is hungry for information aka the information era. In this era, the need to access information cannot be divorced from the daily operations of any business be it a manufacturing or service delivery based business. Storage of information about goods produced, supplied, ordered among much more information is of utmost significance to manufactures and so is the need to store data about customers and market trends to service delivery businesses. During the agrarian and industrial ages, information and data storage relied on files of written papers which served as records for future reference. Today, technology has changed this and data can be stored electronically on disks and later be easily accessed whenever need arise. Advancements in technology that have seen the growth of the internet where information can be shared from remote locations have driven

Alternative Ways to Present Data Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alternative Ways to Present Data - Research Paper Example The latest visualizing health policy info-graphics is a flowchart exemplifying the mechanisms through which people will access healthcare services beginning in 2014. The visualizing health policy of this month provides a step-wise guide through the requirements and options for health coverage under the Affordable Care Act beginning in 2014. This will include other factors such as coverage through an employer, coverage through Medicaid, and coverage through a health insurance exchange (Teitelbaum & Wilensky, 2013). The data is represented in a chart flow as shown below. (http://www.kff.org/healthreform/jama_infographic_1212.cfm) Data presentation is a critical section of reports, research, proposals and other important demonstrations during the course of daily meeting and vital essential presentations. In most cases, the presentations are either visual in nature or depend on a good visual elements for precision and information delivery. With the emergence of technology, the visual tra nsfer of data is accomplished through computer projectors and program like Microsoft PowerPoint. This has made transfer of data easier than ever, and at the same time making it easier to produce a tangible form of the data faithful to the presentation with the printed slide. There are several methods that can be used in data presentation. They include; graphical, tabular, textual, data flow diagram symbols, pie charts, scatter plots and much more methods of data presentation. However, it is worth noting that the method used to present a particular data depends on whether the data is qualitative or quantitative. In the above report- Visualizing Health Polic

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS FINANCE AND TRADE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS FINANCE AND TRADE - Essay Example The Enron Corporation before its collapse was one of the largest global company which had its hands in the sales of natural gas and electricity, commodities like bandwidth internet connection and provided other financial and management services. Failure of corporate governance can be due many reasons. In financial terms if a company owes more than it earns over a significant time period and is not able to carry out trade then it faces a corporate failure. Failure can also occur due to institutional failure in which a group of managers fails to tackle major issues of the company. An important factor behind the collapse of corporate governance is the financial crisis. â€Å"The Enron failure demonstrated a failure of corporate governance, in which internal control mechanisms were short-circuited by conflicts of interest that enriched certain managers at the expense of the shareholders.† (Enron: Corporate Failure, Market Success, 2002). A complete reevaluation of corporate govern ance practice in the United States became important after the fall of Enron. The financial goals of a corporate sector are mainly maximization of share holder’s wealth and the maximization of corporate wealth. The wrong financial decisions taken by the authorities leading to a ‘dubious’ financial transaction also contributes to the failure of corporate governance. The free market situation which emerged as a result of liberalization and the process of privatization of public sector got questioned after the breakdown of the Enron. â€Å"The failure of the corporate governance system should be viewed as the failure of the corporate internal control system† (Dewan, 2006, P. 51 An effective system of corporate governance has both internal and external aspects that have to be sufficiently responsive if governance is to succeed. â€Å"Different internal and external influences address different issues within an organization† (Hafner, 2010, P. 6). Absence of an appropriate internal governance system which leads to an inefficient financial and management performance may also contribute to the breakdown of corporate governance as happened at Enron. Failure of External governance system which has the responsibility to warn the company about the future market situations to do its duty may also contribute to the failure of the corporate governance. The power in the hands of the company given by the corporate rules to influence the policy makers and hence the government has been another reason for the corporate failure. The collapse of corporate governance was not just rooted in poor managerial performance but the entire corporate department plays a major role in ruining the corporate ethical values and principles. But the primary responsibility for the failure of corporate governance lies with the executives and the managers. If the operations management were allowed to work according to the corporate norms then the tragedy of the Enron c ollapse might not have occurred. Effective regulation and oversight, restrictions on campaign financing, and an arms length approach of government in dealing with business may have prevented the breakdown of Enron. â€Å"Enron situation taught a lesson about the main reasons for such failures and not to repeat the same mistakes in the future. The Enron situation was the focus of a massive investigation that led to significant changes in corporate governa

Psychological Approaches Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Psychological Approaches - Essay Example Thus, controlled variables like the conditions of the testing environment and the health of the applicant should be considered before administering the exam. However, these are not commonly given much attention by the HR department or the company who’s administering the test to measure the capability of the examiner. Therefore, validity of exams may not be high. Still exams are considered to get the profile of the applicant and sometimes its result is correlated or validated with the result of the interview conducted by the selection committees. As mentioned, what is mostly considered in the profiles generated by personality assessment measures the capabilities and preferences of the individual. The cognitive aspect affects a part of the person’s profile and thus may vary with other individuals. How and why they differ can be understood by reviewing the cognitive development as well as personality development of a subject. Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language (Wikipedia 2006). It aims to understand the mental processes in problem solving and how one comes out with a decision in response to certain situations. It acknowledges the scientific method as a valid mental process compared to introspection. Jean Piagett (1896), a cognitive psychologist, explained that the Cognitive development of children involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget’s view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. She explained that a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the processes of obtaining knowledge. Children experiences situations and understand the situation, pleasing or not, and stores information derived from that experience. The schema changes as new experiences were

1993 Cuisine and Culture of Mexico Research Paper

1993 Cuisine and Culture of Mexico - Research Paper Example However, Mexican people belong to various different cultures and this fusion of diversity is reflected in the rich Mexican culture and tradition. The Official language of Mexico is Spanish and it is the largest and most densely populated Spanish speaking nation in the world. There is no official religion of Mexico but however, during the ancient Spanish colonization, the religion of Roman Catholicism was introduced to the Mexican people. However, a recent census revealed that 95% of the Mexican population is Christian out of which 89% are Roman Catholics therefore Mexico has the second largest Catholic population in the world. The folk art traditions of Mexican are amalgamations of both Spanish and aboriginal Aztec culture. The great contrasts in the Mexican culture are also due to the influence of Pre Columbian art which is portrayed in the curved, linear and three dimensional ceramics produced in Mexico. The ancient Mesoamerican settlements shaped the traditional literature of anci ent and modern Mexico. Netzahualcoyotl was a pre-Hispanic poet and is by far the most famous historical poet in Mexico. The beginning of the 20th century is considered as the Golden Era of Mexican cinema. During this time many historic events were portrayed in the form of stage performances particularly the Mexican revolution was quite dramatically depicted. Modern day Mexican culture shows great inspiration to the Catholic Church. (Solski, 1981) Modern day Mexican cuisine is a fusion of original Mayan and Aztec culture along with the influence of Spanish culture and cooking traditions. Mexico is famous around the world for this unique blend of Spanish and aboriginal cuisine. Mexican cuisine is known for its wide range of flavors and exotic decorations. The unique fusion of ingredients and a variety of spices give Mexican food a unique and

Shannon made a large impact Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Shannon made a large impact - Assignment Example As mentioned earlier, Shannon’s paper ‘Cryptography: A Mathematical Theory’ was meant for use by a limited number of people. This classification was due because the theory as proposed by Shannon could be used by opposing forces to decode encrypted messages both from the American troops during wartime. Furthermore, it was essential to keep the content of the paper confidential to protect the technology from access by unauthorized people both within the country and in other countries, especially the Germans (Shannon, p 4). The importance of ensuring secrecy remains evident in his writings, where he focused on exploring the possibility of realizing perfect secrecy. ‘It is shown that perfect secrecy is possible but requires, if the number of messages is finite, the same number of possible keys†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Shannon, p. 5). Later, Shannon would ensure that the enemy could not decode encrypted information between the British Prime Minister and the US President at the

War Songs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

War Songs - Essay Example War Songs The modern society just like the ancient society used music to express to warm, teach, praise, and console the society. War is like a double aged sword that cut with both edges. In the same way, war has devastating effects to the parties involved in it. Though war may be necessary in the society, it is always wise to choose peace. With this understanding, this paper explores the effects of war in the society. Quest for political supremacy is a major factor that contributes to war in the world. Political wings, which crave for power, may sometimes fail to identify the need for peace, thus instigating war in the society. In many cases, war has many negative impacts to the world than positive impacts. War has psychological, physical, economical, and social effects to the society. War period is a difficult time for the soldiers and the civilians. People abandon their normal activities and search for peaceful environment. Children and women usually face the worst time in their lives during war because they are weak. Running from one battleground to the other would be difficult for women and children. When mothers and children flee from war torn regions, the males would be walking into the battlefield. I oppose war because of effects it has to the community. These effects include destruction of property and life. War is a destroyer of human efforts. Many social norms advocate for human rights, but war destroys human life. Bob Dylan song, With God On Our Side, portrays how quest for power can lead to war.

Mildred Taylor Essay Example for Free

Mildred Taylor Essay Draft No. 3 TJ is an unlikable boy who has only himself to blame for the situation at the end of the novel. How far do you agree? T. J is an unlikable boy but I do not believe that he has only to himself to blame for the situation at the end of the novel. There are other sides to the story as well. TJ starts off in the novel as a happy, cheerful young boy who enjoys life, but you can already start to see the cheeky side of him. In chapter 1, TJ says: Look on the bright side, Jus think of the advantage youve got. Youll be learnin all stuff fore the rest of us like whats on them tests. This proves that TJ is a cheat. If his mother were a teacher, then he would definitely look at the tests and cheat. TJ and his brother came from one of the poorest families. For example, when he comes into school on the first day, he is wearing no shoes. Whereas the Logans have: New coats and books and shiny new packards. One of the reasons that TJ is such a troublemaker is that he had a socially deprived background and therefore I think he needs to receive the attention that his family never gave him. His families are poor sharecroppers on Granger land. Sharecroppers were black people who work on white land, and get a small percentage of the produce. They are weak and frail and cannot control TJ. A description of TJs father shows he is: A frail sickly man with a hacking cough. The fact that he had a deprived upbringing and that nobody is doing any thing about TJs getting out of hand is why he is not fully to blame for what happens at the end of the novel. Later on, TJ says to Stacey: Friends gotta trust each other, Stacey, cause aint nothing like a true friend. However, TJ betrays Stacey. Stacey is caught with TJs cheat notes and Miss Logan (his Mama) beats her son in front of the whole class. This makes TJ unlikable. We also feel sympathetic towards Stacey for being blamed for something that he did not do. Later on, TJ is mesmerised by a pearl-handed gun. His behavior becomes increasingly disturbing. TJ mocks Stacey about his magnificent new coat because he is jealous. TJ says: He looks like the fat preacher. But the truth is, T. J. is a confused, insecure youngster. He is a character who sets much of the storys violent action into motion; this makes him unlikable. He is a liar, a cheat, and a thief. He causes trouble for different members of the Logan family. Firstly, TJ humiliates Stacey, who in the end disowns his new coat. In chapter 6, Stacey says: The coat was too big for me and and TJ said it made me look like like a preacher. TJ wanted the coat very much so he could show off to his white friends. Then he initiates the dismissal of Mary Logan because he has failed the exam. In that time, if anyone fails the end of year exam, then they must redo the year, thus being with the same teacher. He tells Mr. Granger that Miss Logan erased the word nigra on the books. This causes Mr. Granger to sack Miss Logan because she does not abide to the white rules. In chapter 8, Mr. Granger says: You so smart I expect youd best just forget about teaching altogether then thataway youll have plenty of time to write your own book Later on, in chapter 12, Papa sets fire to the land and ruins many of his crops, thus making him poorer in an attempt to save TJ from being lynched. Even though he is working away from home to improve family income. In the 1930s in the South, the Depression came and the black people often had to seek work elsewhere (Papa, for example, manages to hold down insecure work on the railroad during the Depression. ) TJ has no scruples, no morals, and will do anything to avoid accepting responsibility. This makes him unlikable. He bullies his brother Claude and he will use any devious method to avoid failing at school. But when TJ is in trouble he asks Stacey for help because he is going to fail. Stacey replies angrily: TJ, dont you come talking to me bout no more cheating! When TJ fails, he is full of resentment and anger, so he engineers the dismissal of Miss Logan. He is successful, but only with the help of two other white boys, RW and Melvin. He does this because the Simms brothers are white, and they have more power over what happens to the blacks. This makes TJ unlikable and we feel sympathetic towards Mama (TJ used to hate the whites. ) Mama says: Well you told me Jeremy said they were laughing at TJ behind his back. Some folks just like to keep other folks around to laugh at them use them. TJ does not realise that his white supposed friends are backstabbing him. Stacey discovers that it is TJs fault that his mothers beloved career is ruined. TJs friendships with the white boys spell trouble because they constantly use him, and get him into trouble. This is why TJ does not only have himself to blame for the situation at the end of the novel. Mary Logan understands that TJ is insecure and has no understanding for self-respect so she does nothing to punish TJ. Mama and Papa talk about Stacey in chapter 9: Mary, I want him strong not a fool like TJ Hes got more brains and learning than that' Cassie overhears her parents talking about Stacey and TJ. TJ has gotten out of hand. They discuss his future and what will happen to TJ if things carry on. When Cassie asks her mother if TJ is dumb, she answers, TJs not dumb Cassie, he just wants attention, but hes going after it the wrong way. This shows again why he is not totally to blame. TJ mainly needs attention. Mama says: Theyd better `figure out some way of getting that boy back on the right track because hes headed for a whole lot of trouble. This quotation shows the reader that TJ will get worse if things do not change for TJ. TJ arrives with RW and Melvin (who are both a terrible influence on TJ) and he is dressed like his white friends to impress his ex-friends, the Logans. Cassie realises that the brothers are merely using TJ. She is amazed by TJs stupidity. But TJ befriending white people shows just how desperate TJ is for attention. He thinks he is getting the attention that his parents and the Logans stopped giving him, but in reality, the white Simms brothers are just using TJ. TJ says to the Logans: Everything I want they give me, cause they really like me. Im their best friend. TJ arrives later, badly hurt and crying with despair. He has been tricked into robbing the Barnett store but RW and Melvin covered their faces and wore gloves. They used TJ as their scapegoat and they could not care less what happens to him. We feel sympathetic towards TJ and this is why TJ is not totally to blame for the end. The Lynch mob then come for TJ, intending to visit the Logans next. The sense of fear and anxiety felt by the Logan children, the stories told around the hearth and the consequences for T. J dominate the novel. The Author, Mildred D. Taylor is always giving very negative portrayals of TJ, with occasional references to why he is like he is. This makes him unlikable. But we do feel sympathetic towards him. At the end of the novel Cassie cries for TJ and the land and gives them economic independence, which shows she has fully realised that blacks are the targets for racism, and her whole life will be like that, and that TJs life was wasted. Racism was spreading during the 1930s, especially in Mississippi, the Ku Klux Klan were very active there. Cassie already knows about the dreaded Night Men. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mildred Taylor section.

Ethnic Group and Diversity Essay Example for Free

Ethnic Group and Diversity Essay According to information provide by ask. com â€Å"Cultural diversity has affected society many ways. It has affected everything from how we speak to the clothes we wear and the food that we eat. † â€Å"America is widely known as the melting pot of the world. This means with immigrants coming and going so rapidly over history, we have a very diverse nation. † Some of the benefits of such a diverse nation is that we can learn from each other. We are able to learn of the languages, culture, and backgrounds of others. Having such a diverse nation allows us to see that all humans are equal. According to chacha. com â€Å"Cultural diversity best illustrates the want for equality. † This diversity that we have in the United States has allowed for so many learning experiences from each other. In the schools our children are learning from each other. Without diversity children would not learn that there are different people in the world. One of the negative impacts from such diversity is prejudice. There are groups that are still teaching children and adults that not all people are equal and this is a sad and unjust way to teach someone. What will U. S, Population look like in the year 2050? â€Å"The results of the 2010 U. S. Census project that the racial and ethnic makeup of the United States will undergo dramatic changes over the next few decades. In particular, by the year 2050 there will no longer be any clear racial and ethnic majority because the most rapidly growing number of residents in our nation today are of Hispanic and Asian descent. † This according to: The Center for American Progress. Also according to The Center for American Progress: The United States is undergoing a remarkable and profound demographic shift. Today, in eight states across our union, the majority of children are children of color. This by itself is not significant, but what is worth noting is that the very communities that are growing are the ones that are experiencing significant obstacles and disparities. Sadly, this too is unsurprising. For too long we have been watching the racial and ethnic disparities in education, employment, health, and wealth widen. We know the stories well. Communities of color suffer from high dropout rates, economic insecurity, and lack of health care while wealth gaps rise to record highs between whites and communities of color—the largest gap, in fact, since the government began publishing such data. We know so much about these challenges in part because of the comprehensive work by groups that focus on closing these gaps and in part due to the work of demographers who outline the urgency of reducing these disparities before we reach a point in American history when communities of color together make up a numerical majority. But there is a pressing need today to analyze the implications of the demographic change for local and national policy. We need to better understand how local communities are managing these changes in the face of daunting obstacles so that ultimately we can outline a positive vision of what our country could look like in 2050 if we truly work to close the gaps that exist over the next 40 years. Doing so will enable our nation to harness the full talent and drive of all our people. Progress 2050, a project of the Center for American Progress, seeks to do just that by: Working with the Center’s policy teams to create a more informed and inclusive policy agenda Exploring the implications of this demographic change for our economic, political, and cultural landscape Fostering a localized dialogue about the challenges and opportunities of diversity in communities across our country Helping craft a policy framework and narrative squarely focused on the opportunities of diversity for the future prosperity and well- being of our nation. Without open and frank discussion about the opportunities and challenges of diversity, anxieties about where our country is headed combined with the coming demographic change may generate more division and disturbing stories that counter the fundamentals of American democracy. We as a nation have been down this road before many times as wave upon wave of new immigrants, new Americans, arrived on our shores—often to face brutal discrimination and hardship. We triumphed each time, sometimes after many decades of discrimination, enabling the latest generations of Americans to assimilate and thrive, breathing new life into our economy and our democracy. But the stakes are even higher today. Today, discrimination abounds Escalation in voter suppression tactics. Hate crimes. Anti-immigrant sentiment. And a general sense across the country that our federal, state, and local governments and social and economic institutions are failing to provide the leadership needed to move us meaningfully beyond the economic crisis of the Great Recession. Progress 2050 is uniquely positioned to counter these challenges by offering an alternative. Certainly a progressive voice is needed now. We cannot allow the conversation about the future of this country to be dominated by voices on the right who advocate a very narrow definition of the American ideal. The demographic shift is a reality we must accept and embrace. And a clear vision of where we want our country to be in 2050 and how to get there is urgently needed . Working in collaboration with progressive and civil rights organizations, Progress 2050 will help devise that path forward. If there are not changes made in policies for the poorer people and not just ethnic groups, but all poor people I feel that the United States will lose chances to make a better nation. It would be better to figure out how to advance the poorer people so that they would be an investment to our own Country. Including the people that are already citizens here that were born citizens here. I know that immigrants are offered money to begin their own businesses, why not offer that to citizens that are already here as well that can not afford the cost to start their own business. † What Challenges does the United States face due to the diversity of its people? â€Å"For all the platitudes about melting pots, mosaics, and rainbow coalitions, many regard the browning of America as a profoundly disturbing trend. Miscegenation is still regarded as culturally taboo on Main Street. As recently as 20 years ago, some states still had laws in place forbidding interracial marriage. † Scott London also said â€Å"Many people complain that miscegenation waters down their culture. Some Jews, for example, blame the disintegration of Judaism on the growing rate of interfaith marriages in America. Similarly, a number of Indian tribes are concerned that thinning bloodlines will lead to the statistical extermination of their people. A century ago, half of all Indians in the U. S. were considered full-bloods. Today the number is down to about 20 percent. On Indian reservations, there is now a suicide problem among young half-breeds who dont feel sufficiently pure. Also from an article from Scott London: â€Å"As writer Richard Rodriguez has pointed out, â€Å"we have never had an especially rich vocabulary for miscegenation. † While other cultures speak of themselves as mestizos, mulattoes, and creoles, we persist in referring to ourselves using clumsy designations like Asian-American, African-American, Native American, and even Anglo-American. Curiously, the 1990 census form had boxes for white, black and other, but not for multiracial. Bureaucrats in Washington are now preparing a form for the 2000 census. It seems that as much as the United States thinks it is ready for more diversity we as a Country are not. More still must be done to include all races and ethnic backgrounds. From the way things seem one day we may just be all one big mixed race. What are the benefits of such a diverse society? There are many benefits to having such a diverse society. Some of these include learning from each other. Learning thins such as cultural differences and the why of it. We can even learn languages from each other. In a culturally diverse nation we learn that all humans are the same with just different backgrounds. Our children then do not even realize that there ever was a place in American history where others were treated as less than human. In an article by Scott London he says â€Å"As I see it, the mingling and the mixing of race is a sign that we are evolving toward a higher, more integrated state as a culture. One indication of this is the fact that, as the French theologian Teilhard de Chardin put it, union differentiates. â€Å"The smaller the differences are between people, the more they insist on them. † â€Å"Anthropologists have long observed that as people and cultures evolve, they become more and more distinctive. They dont shed the qualities that make them unique, they refine and develop them. Diversity appears to be a function of social evolution. † â€Å"Of course, diversity doesnt mean a thing if it doesnt challenge us to be more open-minded and inclusive. All too often, what passes for diversity are merely brown, black, and white versions of the same political ideology. There will always be those who overemphasize our diversity and fail to appreciate our essential unity, just as there will always be those who overemphasize our unity and fail to recognize the virtues of diversity. Its a delicate balance. Our founding fathers captured this tension in our national motto, E Pluribus Unum — from the many, one. Its the great paradox of America: what we have in common is diversity. When the founders laid out Americas first principles two hundred years ago, they took inspiration from the Iroquois Indian Confederacy. The Indian tribes modeled this principle of unity in diversity by retaining their individuality while at the same time belonging to a common network in the name of progress and mutual protection. † America can benefit from diversity when Americans are taught that all human beings are equal. Education is the key to this perfect diversity. Yes, education of our children, but why not education of their parents as well? Parents prejudice has been passed down to. How can society foster a climate of acceptance and cultural pluralism in the United States? According to: MEDIA, CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND GLOBALIZATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Zayani, Mohamed, PHDView Profile. Journal of Cultural Diversity18. 2 (Summer 2011): 48-54. Fostering an environment that is tolerant of and conducive to cultural diversity is necessary for upholding democracy in an age dominated by information and communication technologies. In democratic societies, media have been central to the democratic process, giving an outlet to diverse voices and channeling diversity into a process of democratic integration or public opinion and will formation. A free debate is necessary to reach an integrative unity, and media pluralism goes a long way toward achieving such a goal (Tehranian, 1999). In much the same way freedom of expression is important to assert cultural and individual identities, access to information is important for an active participation in decision making and contribution to democratic processes. Although media plays a vital role in society fostering a climate of acceptance and cultural pluralism in the U. S. it still must begin with education. The Government will have to begin a campaign in the nation’s schools and provide education for parents as well. Parents that have been taught prejudice and to deny acceptance and cultural pluralism. Many of these parents, especially in the South, have been taught that African Americans are a lesser human race, the same for any race or culture except the white race. The prejudice has also been taught to the African American children as well. The thinking that all White people are racist and prejudice has been passed down from generation to generation of African Americans as well as white Americans. Spanish/Mexican Americans are taught the same thing and many prejudice white Americans teach this negativity about any race that is not white. These people have some where gotten the idea that the white race is superior to any other race, this can just not be ignored by the Government. It must start with our children and a campaign for them and their parents as well. Then the media could come in at this point and focus on the greatness of such teaching. In what ways does the media perpetuate stereotyping and prejudice? Provide examples to support your assertion. â€Å"The pace with which media have been changing over the past few decades is phenomenal, to say the least. The increased global connectivity along with the convergence of communication infrastructures, media content and electronic devices have dramatically changed the way we experience media and interact with it (Jenkins, 2006). More than ever before, there has been an exponential multiplication of information and communication technologies and growth in media services and modes of delivery. For Tehranian (1999), the changes in technology, the transformation of media and the globalization of communication have a strong bearing on the ability of individuals and groups to safeguard diversity. Three interrelated types of media can be identified with different implications: Macromedia of communication (which are associated with global satellite and computer networks, trans-border data flows, scientific and professional electronic mailing, and commercial advertising) support the globalization of national markets, societies and cultures, though they privilege the power centers more than the periphery; Mesomedia of communication (such as the press, print media, audio-visual media, the film industry, and news agencies) are usually under the control of national governments or commercial and pressure groups and, as such, function mostly as agents of national integration and social mobilization; and Micromedia of communication (such as the telephone, copying machines, audio and video recorders, tapes, PCs, and the Web) have primarily empowered the centrifugal forces of dissent at the peripheries of power. They provide channels for counter-hegemonic projects of cultural resistance, socio-political participation and autonomous development. The affordability and accessibility of micromedia are not without implication on world peripheries which have increasingly been focusing on modernization, indigenous development, cultural identity, and political communication formation (Tehranian, 1999). † This from MEDIA, CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND GLOBALIZATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIESZayani, Mohamed, PHDView Profile. Journal of Cultural Diversity18. 2 (Summer 2011): 48-54. The effect of media is neither monolithic nor uniform. Media plays a central role in fostering the effect of the culture industry; they shape our relationship with each other. Individuals have developed a taste for what media shows, we as a nation consume what media promotes, and it seems that we as a nation act with the information media reveals, we also interpret things by what the media communicate to us. In what ways does the media help foster appreciation for diversity? Provide examples to support your assertion. Fostering an environment that is tolerant of and conducive to cultural diversity is necessary for upholding democracy in an age dominated by information and communication technologies. In democratic societies, media have been central to the democratic process, giving an outlet to diverse voices and channeling diversity into a process of democratic integration or public opinion and will formation. A free debate is necessary to reach an integrative unity, and media pluralism goes a long way toward achieving such a goal (Tehranian, 1999). In much the same way freedom of expression is important to assert cultural and individual identities, access to information is important for an active participation in decision making and contribution to democratic processes. This from MEDIA, CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND GLOBALIZATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIESZayani, Mohamed, PHDView Profile. Journal of Cultural Diversity18. 2 (Summer 2011): 48-54. The media helps foster an appreciation for diversity when the owners, reporters, journalists, and so forth all have an agenda to do so. We also have to look at what the owners of a station, reporters, and other employees believe themselves. If they appreciate diversity themselves then they are more likely to promote diversity. For example: Take a white reporter and give him the assignment of reporting on diversity. His report is going to be based on what he believes. If he has an appreciation for diversity then he will help to foster that. But if he is prejudice and does not support the coming together of races and cultures as well as immigration, then his report is going to reflect that. The sad thing is if his report is negative he will impact many people just due to the fact that people have their favorite news and other media channels. If he supports diversity he will win over many or at least make many start thinking about their own beliefs and feelings on the matter. How might individuals and the United States work together to reduce prejudice and increase appreciation for diversity? According to Building One Nation: A Study of What is Being Done Today in Schools, Neighborhoods, and the Workplace. â€Å"Race has played a paradoxical role in American society since the founding of the country. While our racial and ethnic diversity has been a source of great strength, it has also been our central moral challenge. Our nation has made great strides in addressing prejudice and discrimination during this century. Laws that denied citizenship to people because of their race or ethnicity have been repealed. Discrimination at the ballot box and in housing, employment, education, and public facilities is illegal. Segregated lunch counters, movie theaters, water fountains, and restrooms are no longer part of the American landscape. Racial tolerance and understanding have increased manyfold. At the same time, research and everyday experience demonstrate that discrimination continues to infest American society, resulting in lost opportunities for too many individuals. † To make changes we as individuals and the United States as a Country must work together to reduce prejudice and increase appreciation for diversity. The first thing we must do is to bring these issues to light by discussion. Without these issues being discussed by individuals and the United States it will never be addressed. We must also increase intergroup contact situations. We must create intergroup panels of mixed racial and ethnic backgrounds. From these discussions the debate must be discussed in detail among the groups. Through this discussion changes must be made in institutions, schools, churches, and other group forums. If we implement these things we must implement them to each individual group at age appropriate levels. â€Å" Educational Approaches And Strategies (K-12) A school is a natural setting in which to forge enduring bonds among children from different backgrounds. Research primarily in integrated educational situations clearly demonstrates that when individuals are permitted to deal with one another across racial and ethnic lines in cooperative, equal-status activities with plenty of room for one-on-one exchanges and with support from authority figures, there is an excellent chance that positive intergroup relations will evolve. In this section we consider numerous strategies for improving the rapport among children in Kindergarten through high school, under the following headings: Curriculum Reform Training and Retraining of Teachers School Desegregation Cooperative Learning Paired Programs Conflict Resolution Youth Leadership Training in Desegregated Settings. Diversity In Higher Education Given the level of segregation in our nations communities as well as in our primary and secondary schools, many students meet across racial lines for the first time when they reach college. Colleges and universities therefore play a pivotal role in conveying an appreciation of American diversity and in breaking the cycle of intolerance. Educational Approaches And Strategies (K-12) A school is a natural setting in which to forge enduring bonds among children from different backgrounds. Research primarily in integrated educational situations clearly demonstrates that when individuals are permitted to deal with one another across racial and ethnic lines in cooperative, equal-status activities with plenty of room for one-on-one exchanges and with support from authority figures, there is an excellent chance that positive intergroup relations will evolve. In this section we consider numerous strategies for improving the rapport among children in Kindergarten through high school, under the following headings: Curriculum Reform Training and Retraining of Teachers School Desegregation Cooperative Learning Paired Programs Conflict Resolution Youth Leadership Training in Desegregated Settings. Diversity in Higher Education Given the level of segregation in our nations communities as well as in our primary and secondary schools, many students meet across racial lines for the first time when they reach college. Colleges and universities therefore play a pivotal role in conveying an appreciation of American diversity and in breaking the cycle of intolerance. † This according to: Building One Nation: A Study of What is Being Done Today in Schools, Neighborhoods, and the Workplace. We must also intergrate neighborhoods and make them more diverse. This is another area where the United States and individuals must come together to discuss and come up with plans to intergrate neighborhoods. How might a person change their own behaviors to be more inclusive and pluralistic? People can change their own attitudes by educating themselves. They can also inter-relate with diverse groups of people, different racial groups and different ethnic groups. People can start by going to their children’s school and meeting all of the classmates. Parents can encourage their children to interact with all students in their class. When parents give their children parties they can make sure that they and their children invite individuals from all races and ethnic groups. Adults can also have intergroup relations in the workplace. If a person wants to make a change the workplace would be a great place to start. Individuals could take the initiative to have conversations with individuals of different races or ethnic backgrounds. They could start inviting those of different racial and ethnic groups to have lunch with them. There are many things that individuals can do to change their own behaviors and include multi-cultural individuals into their own daily lives. The question is Are they willing to make the change? Sources and References: http://www. americanprogress. org/issues/race/report/2011/10/18/10477/progress-2050/b http://www. ask. com http://www. scottlondon. com/articles/newface. html http://search. proquest. com. ezproxy. apollolibrary. com/docview/884629314? accountid=35812 MEDIA, CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND GLOBALIZATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Zayani, Mohamed, PHDView Profile. Journal of Cultural Diversity18. 2 (Summer 2011): 48-54. http://www. civilrights. org/publications/reports/building_one_nation/.

Impact of World War 1 on Modernism

Impact of World War 1 on Modernism How would you describe the impact of the First World War on Modernist visual practices? The aesthetic phenomenon of Modernism, wide-reaching as that term is, can be historically defined as a period that began around 1860, with Manet generally accepted as the first Modernist painter, and came to an end around 1940 – although the murky cross-over between modernism and post-modernism, and the ubiquitous nature of both terms, means that some historians see Modernism stretching to the 1970s. The term applies retrospectively to a wide range of movements, including Futurism, Dada and Cubism, which broadly sought to distance themselves from the values and stylistics of Classicism. In a general aesthetic sense, modern art is often concerned with essential properties of the potential of colour and flatness, and over time a fading interest in subject matter can be witnessed. In fact, in a more specific sense, Modernism can be seen to refer not just to a style or styles of art, but to the philosophy of art as well. From a historical viewpoint, Modernism can be seen as the reaction of art – at least of the progressive artist – to the post-industrial world, a world in which the machine came to be as prominent and ubiquitous as man, and indeed it was in the largest European metropolises, where the tensions of social modernity were most prominent, that the earliest incarnations of Modernism in art appeared. However Modernism is a wide and watered down term, associated with a myriad of differing, and often opposing movements. What draws them together is that they respond to the same situations of the modern world, of the industrialisation of society and the cataclysmic watershed of the First World War. Christopher Witcombe talks of the period of enlightenment in the 18th century, which preceded the advent of Modernism: â€Å"Progressive 18th-century thinkers believed that the lot of humankind would be greatly improved through the process enlightenment, from being shown the truth. With reason and truth in hand, the individual would no longer be at the mercy of religious and secular authorities which had constructed their own truths and manipulated them to their own self-serving ends. At the root of this thinking is the belief in the perfectibility of humankind.†[1] According to Witcombe, the roots of modernism lie in the ideals of the Enlightenment, and this is where we can see the new roles of the artist begin to take shape. Essentially, the overarching goal of Modernism, of modern art, has been â€Å"the creation of a better society†[2]. But as we shall see, the moralistic idealism of the Enlightenment was not the preferred form for the Modernist movement, which was dragged through the mill of the industrial revolution, and, following hot on its heels, the First World War. There was a sense from the conservative modernists that the way forward was to be guided by existing institutions. The progressives, on the other hand were â€Å"critical of institutions as restrictive of individual liberty†[3]. In the 20th century, progressive modernism was thrust into the spotlight, leaving conservative modernism in its wake, with many people sceptical of its artistic merits. The conservative painters of the 19th century attempted to reflect and exemplify a kind of moral Christian virtue, and believed this to be a vital contribution from art to society – the representation of a model of social values to which everyone could aim. Conservative modernism, however, was looked down upon by progressives as an unambitious celebration of the values of the ruling class. Art, progressives argued, should be forward thinking, challenging, as well as socially responsible, whilst conservatives offered little more than a rosy re-hashing of the sepia past. So whilst the conservatives wished to continue existing institutions and favoured a gradual development, progressives criticised ruling institutions and searched for radical upheaval. In the first 10 years of the 20th century, a rapidly escalating political tension and a distrust of and anger toward the social order began to permeate much of European society. The socio-political evidence of this lies in the Russian Revolution and the prominence all over Europe of aggressive radicals. In the art community, this growing unease can be seen in the trend toward a radical simplification of previous stylistics, and in some cases, complete rejection of previous practice. Young painters such as Matisse and Picasso began to cause shockwaves with their embracing of non-traditional perspectives, a re-hauling of the rules of representation as an aesthetic theme, taking risks that even the Impressionists had not dared. At the heart of this new movement was an affection for disruption, and a progression away from Realism, and this began to give a new dimension to the term Modernism. Progressive Modernism was thrust into the spotlight, leaving conservative modernism in its wake, with many people sceptical of its artistic merits. The conservative painters of the 19th century attempted to reflect and exemplify a kind of moral Christian virtue, and believed this to be a vital contribution from art to society – the representation of a model of social values to which everyone could aim. Conservative modernism, however, was looked down upon by progressives as an unambitious celebration of the values of the ruling class. Art, progressives argued, should be forward thinking, challenging, as well as socially responsible, whilst conservatives offered little more than a rosy re-hashing of the sepia past. So whilst the conservatives wished to continue existing institutions and favoured a gradual development, progressives criticised ruling institutions and searched for radical upheaval. Whereas painters like Turner had been respected members of society’s greatest intelligentsia, seen as contributors to the greater good of society, the progressive Modernist saw the deification of traditional values and social structures as stifling, and therefore the artist took on a new persona, that of the righteous revolutionary, and we can see an example of this in the movement known as Futurism, a movement which had its own self-styled manifesto, published in Le Figaro, in an attempt to provoke, incite, and recruit the like-minded. Futurism, like much of 20th century Modernism, was based upon a rejection of the past, and this attitude came to the fore with progressives with the advent of World War One – which represented a cataclysmic failure of the conservative ideals of tradition. For many progressives, the Great War presented an almighty coming together of man and machine in the most morbid possible way, a futile mechanised massacre, which contrasted bitterly with the Modernist treatment of the role of the machine in beauty, and its faith in technology. This was clearly not the way to a healthier society. It has been said that World War One marked the failure of modern art, and a watershed for the emergence of the post-modern. The artistic community took it upon itself to lead the way, as it were, in the post-war society, given the catastrophic failure of many public institutions. After the war, there grew a kind of social vacuum, a sense that there was a lack of people and institutions to believe in. Many artists felt that it was therefore the responsibility of art to orient the collective social aspiration, to shape a new spirit in the wake of such destruction, and the delegitimisation of so many hopes and values. In this way, the Modernist art of the post-war era was at once ultimately moral, hopeful, and rooted in a deep social conscience, but also vividly subversive and challenging in its (many) aesthetic forms – like the best art, the best music, and the best literature, its moral heart lay in its readiness to challenge and confront the spectator. Characterised deeply by the residing antagonism of the industrial revolution, there came about a kind of collective conviction that traditions, institutions, and social frameworks were not perpetual, but rather that they were open to continuing re-evaluation and subjugation, and this attitude can be witnessed in Tristan Tzara’s movement Dada, which gave perhaps the most radical voice to the post-war Modernist. The Dadaists were not content to simply ‘make art’, they wanted to affect all corners of society, to take part in the revolutionary changes which were the inevitable result of the chaos after the War. The aims of the artist became to negate all social and aesthetic traditions, to make every work a new and marginal expression, and better to be bitterly divisive than quietly dormant. Moreover, every artistic manifestation was a form of didactic interaction with social and historical change. So the First World War represented a huge failure of the previous status quo, culminating in the most excruciating and fruitless deaths of millions across the world. A generation of young artists had witnessed men and boys, many at first-hand, perish defending slivers of earth. Machine warfare had become an accepted horror of reality: the dubious honours of war – valour, courage, and heroism, had been sourly debased by the impersonal brutality of the tank and the machine gun. In the face of such fundamentally unthinkable horror, the funds of Realism seemed to be empty, and the view that the human race had been steadily climbing some moral ladder toward enlightenment became utterly banal. As Christopher Witcombe says, â€Å"The First World War, at once, fused the harshly mechanical geometric rationality of technology, with the nightmarish irrationality of myth†[4]. And so in the 1920s and onward, Modernism became one of the defining movements of the era, whereas before it had been mostly a minority taste, its luminaries more heard of than heard. As a result of its new found prominence, the mood shifted towards a replacement of the older status quo with a base of new methods. Modernism began to reach prominence in Europe in such pertinent movements as Dada and Surrealism. The tendency under the umbrella of Modernism became to form separate movements and develop systems separate to each other – aside from Dada there was the International style of Bauhaus and Socialist Realism. By the 1930s, Modernism had entered the Jazz Age, and labels such as modern or hyper-modern† began to proliferate, and the term Modernism began to lose its resonance, like butter scraped across too much toast. After World War Two, consumer culture became the focus of the Modernist artist, as the focus shifted from the graphic, morbid horrors of the two Wars to the more palettable horrors of the popular culture invasion, and the aesthetic outrage of post-war modernism came to be replaced by an aesthetic of sanction. This combination of consumer and modernist cultures led to a total overhaul of the meaning of the term modernism, and can be seen as the beginning of the contemporary form of Postmodernism, replete with its self-referential fixation – as the lines between elite culture and consumer culture had become blurred, and a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition itself. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arnason, H. H., History of Modern Art New York: Harry N. Abrams, 4th edition, 1998 Atkins, Robert. ArtSpoke: A Guide to Modern Ideas, Movements, and Buzzwords, 1848-1944. New York: Abbeville Press, 1993 Chipp, Herschel B. Theories of Modern Art Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968 and 1989 Malcolm Bradbury, Modernism 1890-1930, London: Penguin, 1991 Christopher Witcombe, What is Art?, http://witcombe.sbc.edu/modernism/artsake.html, 2000 [1] Christopher Witcombe, What is Art?, http://witcombe.sbc.edu/modernism/artsake.html, 2000 [2] Christopher Witcombe, What Is Art? [3] Christopher Witcombe, What Is Art? [4] Christopher Witcombe, What is Art?

hate crimes Essay -- essays research papers fc

Defining Hate Crimes Hate crimes has become an increasing problem here in the united states ranging from racial hatred to gender discrimination but what are hate crimes? According to Dr. Jack McDevitt, a criminologist at Northeastern University in Boston Hate crimes are message crimes, Hate crimes are defined as crimes that are violent act against people, property, or organizations because of the group to which they belong or identify with. The coined term â€Å"hate crimes† was first used No matter how many different definitions there are for hate crimes but we all can agree that hate crimes are wrong and immoral. But within hate crimes they are many different types of hate crimes. One of the main reasons that people commit hate crimes would have to be because of racial hatred. Racial Hatred is a major factor in hate crimes with African Americans being the main target. According to the FBI database in 1996, 4,831 out of the 7,947 such crimes reported to the FBI, or 60%, were promulgated because o f race, with close to two-thirds (62%) targeting African Americans. African Americans may be the most targeted race but other races are targeted as well, such as Hispanics, Chinese and after the recent September 11 attacks on the world trade center Arab Americans have become an increasingly alarming target in the United States. And in addition to racial hate crimes there are crimes that involve religious discrimination, gender discrimination, homosexuality and in some cases people with ...

saychianna book :: essays research papers

~Chapter II~ ~The dream that night~ I dreamed that night for a short time, I’m not sure how long, but it didn’t feel like a dream at all. ~Chapter III~ ~The Moon and its Devilish Red Glare~ As the moon began to come out into view, I stood back upon my feet. I could see a little bit more since it was a full moon, it is glowing an eerie color. It reminded me of the fight that broke out at the palace. It sent a sudden chill of fear strait down my spine. I began to try to remember the way that I came in but it was all a rush altogether. I could not remember a thing. Nothing at all came. Even if I could remember was I come in from it was very dark and I couldn’t see at all now. It was obvious to me that I would have to stay there the whole night, but I hadn’t any thought of where to stay. †¦I’m still bleeding a lot; well not as much as it was. I did not know my way around yet so I just started to stroll along. As a few minuets passed on by I am again on a trail to no ware. There on the other side I could see a small path. I hoped that the path could lead me out of this shadowed forest. .. So I started running to it. I’m running as fast as I can. It is not like I could do that much right now any way. I don’t know if the path leads farther into the shadowy woods, or out of them. Anyway, even if I did manage to escape this wood alive, I don’t know who or what is awaiting my arrival to come out of here. Besides, what if there are worse creatures in here. I really don‘t want to find out. This is defiantly not such a place for me. I do not enjoy sudden attacks on my home and being thrown around like a rag doll. No, that is not I, at all. So once again I started off into this deep dark abyss, I never knew that the woods would be this dark. I was all riled up now since there was no true way of finding anyway out of this forest without daylight. I now feared that I might never be found again alive.

The Key Into Ketogenic Diets :: Health Fat Weight Loss Dieting Essays

The Key Into Ketogenic Diets Come on now...we have all done it. You know the feeling. You are walking down an aisle in the supermarket craving â€Å"bad†. Instead of going for the Oreo cookies you feel are loaded with fat, you opt for the Snackwells Fat Free Devils Food Cake Cookies and feel like you are a saint for making the least harmful choice. You feel great...that is until you get home, open the package, eat one cookie, then two...then in a matter of minutes the whole box has been consumed. But you think, its not that bad...no fat!!!! But, what about everything else in that box In the last couple of decades, dieting trends have astronomically increased. The average dieter has trained his or her ears and eyes to react to the word ‘fat’. Low fat, reduced fat, fat free- these are all words that until recently have set alarms off ringing in the typical dieter’s head. Recently, new vocabulary, such as ketogenic, ketosis, and low carbohydrate have stepped into the dieter’s world and questioned, or rather challenged, the ‘fat’ free method of dieting. So, after you have devoured the entire box of ‘fat’ free cookies perhaps you will ask yourself....WHAT ABOUT THE CARBOHYDRATES Ketogenics...Low-Carbohydrate...Ketosis...what does all this mean? Ketogenic diets, often called low-carbohydrate (low carb is slang), seem to be the latest diet trend. There are many different forms, all varying in different degrees. Ketogenic diets focus primarily on the limited intake of carbohydrates in the food pyramid. In order to clearly understand ketogenic diets, one must start with the basics-what are ketones and where are ketones found and produced What are ketones Ketose is any sugar that contains a ketone group. Ketone bodies are the normal physiological defenses in starvation. Ketone bodies are normal products of lipid and pyruvate and found within the liver. When an impaired or absent carbohydrate intake occurs, the body increases its production of ketone bodies and metabolizes them as an energy source. Ketogenesis, which is the production of ketone bodies occurs in ketogenic diets, resulting in a ketotic state( Miller-Keane 1997). So, â€Å"when the requirement for glucose cannot be met by other means, the tissues of the body rely increasingly on ketone bodies as an energy source† (Volpe 1983).

Childrens Day Essay

In India, Children’s day is celebrated on the 14th November every year. As a tribute Children’s Day is celebrated on the first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru’s birthday. Lovingly called ‘Chacha Nehru’ which means Uncle Nehru by the kids, Jawaharlal Nehru gave emphasis to the significance of giving love and affection to children, who are the bright future of India. The main purpose of this day is to encourage the welfare of children all over the country. The first ever Children’s day was celebrated in 1954. The idea of a universal Children’s Day was suggested by Mr. V.K. Krishna Menon and it adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. At first it was celebrated universally in the month of October. After 1959, November 20th was chosen as Children’s day as it marked the anniversary day when the Declaration of the Child Rights was adopted by the U.N. General Assembly. In 1989 the Convention on the Rights of the Child w as also signed on the same date. However, in India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s birthday was declared as Children’s Day and is celebrated annually to cherish his love and attachment for children. Children are like precious gems. Understand the significance of children’s day which is celebrated on 14th November in India. Children are adorable. They are like divine gifts that parents get from the almighty. Their eyes are full of innocence. They smile when they receive love and admiration, they cry when it is their first day at school away from their parents, they giggle when they mingle with their buddies, and they signify nothing but the pure and faithful love. They truly symbolise god. 14th November is celebrated as children’s day in all over India. 14th November is also the birthday of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India. Childhood memories are sweetest of all. They can be savored for a lifetime. Children’s day celebration is fun for the little ones but it is important for the parents too. Every parent must understand the importance of the children’s day. Parents should be well aware about the little desires of t heir angels. Chacha Nehru’s love for children Do you know why Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s birthday is celebrated as the children’s day? Pandit Nehru was a great leader. He worked passionately for the welfare of children and youngsters soon after independence. He was keen about welfare, education, and development of children in India. He was fond of  children and thus became popular as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru) among his little admirers. Nehru was very particular about the progress of the Indian youth. He wanted to create responsible citizens out of young boys and girls. Under his regime he established several educational institutions including All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Indian Institutes of Technology, and Indian Institutes of Management. He included and highlighted the point in his five years plan that every child in India would get free and compulsory primary education. Over thousands of schools were built through out the villages of India when Nehru was in power. He also brought the scheme to distribute free meals and milk to school children in India to prevent malnutrition. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru himself was destiny’s child. He struggled a lot for the welfare of India. It is believed that he admired two things a lot, red roses and children. His love and passion towards children is the reason why we celebrate Children’s Day on his birthday. Why do we celebrate Children’s Day? Children’s Day celebration is the tribute to childhood. John Kennedy, 35th US president has quoted it rightly, ‘Children are the world’s most valuable resource and its best hope for the future.’ We cannot hide the fact that many children in India are not getting basic privileges like education. Many children are earning money instead of playing with toys. The true essence of children’s day is to understand the significance of childhood in our lives. The values and disciplines learned as a child are responsible for the kind of adulthood one has. Thus childhood is special and should be celebrated. Children’s Day is to remind all young and adults about children’s right to enjoy their childhood without any boundaries and to be educated adult in the future. Children’s Day is to revise the right methods of raising children. Children’s Day Celebration 20th November is Universal Children’s Day. In India lots fun activities and programs are organized on the children’s day. Childr en’s Day is called as ‘Bal Divas’ in Hindi. On this particular day government, NGOs (non government organisations), schools, and some private bodies conduct competitions and events for children. Various cultural programs are organized through out the schools. Special television programs for children are broadcasted on 14th November. Parents too are eager about children’s day. Some parents buy gifts for their sons and daughters. Some parents give greeting cards to their children to express their wishes on this special  day. As parents we should not let this day pass as other ordinary day. It is our duty to make children’s day special for our child. You may take your child to visit some NGO or children’s home on this day. You can imbibe some precious values in him though generous acts. Your child can give away some of his belongings to other poor children. In such a way he will get to know the real significance of this day. Make every 14th November special for your child. After all, ‘Children will no t remember you for the material things you provide them but for the feeling that you cherished them.’

Merck Case

pharmaceutics Merck Sustaining wide-run service by dint of In workation engine room Hiroshi Amari Working theme No. 161 Working Paper series con n aces on japanese rescue and condescension Columbia Business groom celestial latitude 1998 Columbia-Yale acoustic roveion Use of bundle to Achieve Competitive Advantage PHARMACEUTICALS MERCK Sustaining Long-term Advantage finished with(predicate) Information engine room Prepargond by Hiroshi Amari Research Associate, Yale University William V. Rapp and Hugh T. Patrick Co-principal Project InvestigatorsCenter for Inter internal and Area Studies Yale University New Haven, CT 06520 203-432-9395 (Fax 5963) e-mail fork oeriam. emailprotected edu Revised December 1998 put off of Contents 1. penetration Objective of this contemplate 2. The Pharmaceutical patience in a spherical Context 3. pr withalts R&D and Clinical Trials 4. Manufacturing and Process R&D 5. Technological Factors Structure-Based medicate ( demytholo gised Drug) Design Structure-Based Drug ( intellectual Drug) Design 6. Merck 7. Managerial decisioning Making 8. Decision Making on IT pouchs 9. Joint Ventures 10. Information Technology and formation 11.App demolitionix I Summary Answers to Questions for Merck Strategy & trading operations 12. App break offix II INDUSTRY AND planetary ho occasion BUSINESS DATA 13. Bibliography 2 Introduction Objective of this Study This episode test of Merck was stain slight on a lower floor a deuce-ace category inquiry grant from the Sloan k forthwithl bound labor. The projects c erstption is to examine in a series of case studies how U. S. and Nipp wholenessse stiffs who ar recognize leaders in begetment breeding engineering wisdom to attain long-term sustainable re shimmers lose organized and look atd this strike. darn individu entirelyy case is complete in itself, totally(prenominal) is affair of this plumpingr study. This pharmaceutic perseverance ca se together with diversewise cases2 meet an initial search achievable action that leading parcel expenditurers in just more or slight(prenominal)(prenominal) the U. S. and Japan argon in truth advanced in the government agencys they accommodate incorporate bundle output computer program into their management strategies and implement it to practice organizational strengths and come tacit bedledge on an iterative ass. In Japan this dodging has complex monstrous cartel on customized and semicustomized computer computer softw ar (Rapp 1995) hairsplittingly is ever- changing towards a much than overhearive pulmonary tuberculosis of package softw be managed via customized dusts. In turn, U. S. ounter part, much(prenominal) as Merck, who project frequently re deceptiond much on case softw atomic number 18, atomic number 18 doing to a greater extent customization, peculiar(a)ly for systems chartered to integrate softwargon packages into or so thing to a greater extent n ahead of time on linked with their none strategies, merchandises, and organizational coordinate. Thus, coming from antithetic directions, in that location appears nigh predict of intersection in begin by these leading softw ar applyrs. The cases thence con trusty what some separate analysts move out a crap hypothe coatd, a coherent business dodge is a un emptyable condition for a prospered stochasticness technology dodge (Wold and Shriver 1993). These strategicalalalal links for Merck be registered in the future(a) case. Industries and tautens examined argon food retail (Ito-Yokado and H. Butts), semiconductors (NEC and AMD), pharmaceuticals (Takeda and Merck), retail banking (Sanwa and Citibank), commitment banking (Nomura and Credit Suisse for the out harvesting m Boston), sprightliness insurance (Meiji and USAA), autos (Toyota), steel (mini-mills and unite mills, Nippon Steel, Tokyo Steel and Nucor), and ap p atomic number 18l retail (WalMart). The case writer and the enquiry police squad wish to express their appreciation to the Alfred P.Sloan Foundation for reservation this p localizeact manageable and to the Sloan effort middle(a)s for their invaluable assistance. They curiously appreciate the time and guidance presumptuousness by the oculus for look for on pharmaceuticals at MTT as sanitaryhead as Mr. Sato at Takeda. This refers to cases for which interviews re displace been completed. See an nonate 3. These and different unofficial results be presented in an different Center on Japanese Economy and Business on the job(p) paper William V. Rapp, Gaining and Sustaining Long-term Advantage Through Information Technology The emergence of Controlled Production, December 1998 strategy (Wold and Shriver 1993). 3 These strategic links for Merck ar presented in the fol subalterning case. Yet this case along with the other cases in any case illustrates that implementat ion and conception of apiece(prenominal) comp some(prenominal)s softw ar package and softwargon strategy is pre spoterous to its militant situation, manufacturing and strategic objectives. These constituents see how they choose amid packaged and customized softwargon options for achieving specialized goals and how they footstep their success.Indeed, as part of their strategic integration, Merck and the other leading softw be officers interviewed fool linked their softw atomic number 18 strategies with their general management goals by literalize bearing statements that explicitly none the magnificence of cognition technology to firm success. They deplete united this with diligent CIO (Chief Information Officer) and IT ( teaching technology) support pigeonholing participation in the firms business and finality making building.Thus for firms like Merck the totally separate MIS (Management Information Systems) department is a thing of the departed. This w hitethorn be one spring why come forthsourcing for them has not been a accredited option, though their made business executing is not ground solely on softw atomic number 18. Rather as shall be exposit below softw ar is an total atom of their boilers suit management strategy and plays a separate occasion in inspection and repair corporate goals much(prenominal) as enhancing productivity, better inventory management or fortify customer relations.These systems thus essential(prenominal) be join with an appropriate glide slope to manufacturing, R, and merchandise reflecting Mercks clear understanding of their business, their finishing and their firms private-enterprise(a) strengths within this context. This clear business fantasy has enabled them to select, spud and subprogram the softw ar they select for each business hunt and to integrate these into a total support system for their operations to achieve corporate objectives. Since this mess bear upons other corporateThese and other compact results argon presented in another Center on Japanese Economy and Business puzzle outing paper William V. Rapp, Gaining and Sustaining Long-term Advantage Through Information Technology The Emergence of Controlled Production, December 1998 3 4 finiss, they prevail rock-steady gracious resource and financial characteristics as wellhead as (Appendix I & ii). Yet Merck does distri exactlye some usual themes with other leading softwargon utilizers much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as the populace of gravid proprietary interactive entropy sales booths that provoke machinelike feedback amongst various ramifications and/or players in the drudgery, delivery and consumption serve up.Their world power to uptake IT to stiffen inventories and break adjudge of the takings fulfill are likewise common to other leading software recitationrs. They are also able organizationally and emulously to build nice feedback cyc les or loops that increment productivity in cognition domains as distinguishable as R, normal and manufacturing firearm trim cycle clock and defects or integrating take and delivery. Improved cycle times repeal be only when increase the reliability of forecasts since they need to cover a gyper point in time.Customer satisfaction and lower inventories are meliorate through and through and through on-time delivery. Thus, software arousals are captious factors in Mercks and other leading users boilersuit business strategies with strong positive emulous implications for doing it successfull-of-the-moony and potentialityly negative implications for competitors. An grand con positioningration in this delight in is the possible emergence of a saucy strategic manufacturing paradigm in which Merck is probably a leading participant.In the alike musical mode aggregated issue dramatically improved on craft production through the economies of orotund scale plants tha t produced and apply standardized parts and lean production improved on mussiness production through making the production line more unceasing, step-down inventories and tying production more fast to authentic prerequisite, what might be called controlled production seems to signifi brush offtly improve productivity through observeing, controlling and linking any conniption of producing and delivering a product or service including subsequent sales eventidets service and repair.Such controlled production is exactly possible by actively apply culture technology and software systems to incessantly provide the monitoring and control function to what had oldly been a rather self-winding system response to changes in 5 evaluate or actual consumer read. This whitethorn be why their scienceful use of data technology is seen by themselves and fabrication analysts as of the essence(predicate) to their business success, still completely when it is integrated with t he business from twain an operation and organization standpoint reflecting their boilersuit business strategy and clarity of agonistic vision.Therefore at Merck the software and systems victimization mess are part of the decision making organise while the system itself is an integral part of organizing, delivering and supporting its do medicates billet from R through to sales post FDA plaudit. This time is occurrencely deprecative in pharmaceuticals where even aft(prenominal)(prenominal) clinical runnels in that venerate is a continuous need to monitor potential side effect. Therefore Seagate Technology may be correct for Merck as well when they state in their 1997 Annual subject field We are experiencing a fresh indus effort revolution, one more powerful than any forrader it.In this emerging digital man of the Third Millennium, the unexampled currency pull up stakes be information. How we harness it result baseborn the difference among success and sorrow, betwixt having free-enterprise(a) improvement and being an also-ran. In Mercks case, as with the other leading software users examined, the describe to receivement software successfully is to modernize a melt of packaged and customized software that supports their business strategies and oppo orderiates them from competitors. However, they arrive at not time-tested to adapt their organizational coordinate to the software.Given this perspective, functional and mart gains countenance confirm the extra expense incurred through customization, including the think hails of integrating customized and packaged software into a single information system. They do this by appraiseing the possible business uses of software organizationally and ope sharply and especially its role in enhancing their core competencies. While they leave alone use systems utilise by competitors if in that location is no business wages to under developed their own, they reject the view that i nformation systems are generic wine wine products crush actual by outside vendors who bathroom achieve low represent through economies of scale and who toilet more easily afford to invest in the latest technologies. 4 In undertaking this and the other case studies, the project squad sought to answer authorized tombstone questions while still recognizing firm, estate and industriousness differences. These acquit been explained in the summary paper referenced in footnote 3. We have set them forth in Appendix I where Mercks profile is presented ground on our interviews and other research.Readers who wish to measure for themselves the way Mercks strategies and approaches to using information technology organise these issues may wish to reexamine Appendix I prior to interpretation the case. For others it may be a cyberspaceable summary. 5 Merck and the other cases have been developed using a common airological abstract that examines crisscross national pairs of fi rms in anchor industries. In belief, each pair of case studies localizees on a Japanese and Ameri skunk firm in an sedulousness where software is a signifi gouget and successful input into matched achievement.The firms examined are ones recognized by the Sloan patience centers and by the labor as ones using software successfully . To develop the studies, we combined outline of exist research results with questionnaires and direct interviews. Further, to relate these materials to previous make believe as well as the expertness located in each assiduity center, we held working meetings with each center and coupled invigoratedfangled questionnaires with the materials used in the previous study to either update or obtain a questionnaire uniform to the one used in the 1993-95 research (Rapp 1995).This method enabled us to relate each aspect and industry to earlier results. We also worked with the industry centers to develop a set of questions that specifically relate to a firms business strategy and softwares role within that. Some questions address issues that appear relatively general across industries much(prenominal)(prenominal) as inventory control. Others much(prenominal) as managing the dose blood are more specific to a particular industry. The stress has been to establish the firms perception of its industry and its competitive position as well as its returns in developing and using a software strategy.The team also contacted customers, competitors, and industry analysts to determine whether competitive bene barracks or impacts perceived by the firm were recognized outside the organization. These sources provided additional selective information on measures of competitiveness as well as industry strategies and structure. The case studies are thus establish on extensive interviews by the project team on softwares use and integration into management strategies to improve competitiveness in specific industries, augmenting be inform ation on industry dynamics,firmorganizational structure and management strategy collected from the Sloan industry enters.In addition, we ga in that respectd data from outside sources andfirmsor organizations with which we worked in the earlier project. Finally, the US and Japanese companies in each industry that were selected on the basis of being perceived as successfully using software in a key role in their competitive strategies in fact saw their use of software in this exact manner while these competitive public assistances were in the main corroborate after just research.The questions are con implanted into the hounding categories General Management and bodily Strategy, Industry connect to Issues, Competition, Country Related Issues, IT Strategy, IT Operations, Human Resources and Organization, Various Metrics such as Inventory Control, Cycle times and Cost Reduction, andfinallysome Conclusions and Results.They cover a consort of issuesfromdirect use of software t o achieve competitive advantage, to corporate strategy, to criteria for selecting software, to industry economicals, to measures of success, to organizational integration, to beneficial loops, to training and institutional dynamics, andfinallyto interindustry comparisons. 7 The Pharmaceutical Industry in a Global Context In advanced countries that constitute Mercks primary grocery store, the pharmaceutical industry is an exceptionally research intensive industry where legion(predicate) firms are gargantuan multinationals (MNCs).It is also heavily localise for both local producers and MNCs. Regulations work as both constraints and performance boosters since do do medicinesss are used with other medical checkup and health upkeep services. Therefore, health care expenditures are divided among numerous industries and providers of which pharmaceuticals are only one. only parties involved are interested in influencing the regulative environment and in participating in the growing in health care services. This operator understanding the industry requires appreciating its political economic context.In this count, healthcare providers in rich nations are rate of time periodly under world press to control costs collectable to aging populations. Regulators who have the authority to change the demand structure through laws and orders are considering various measures to visit costs such as generic do medicates substitution which may mean lower returns for dis back and developing medicates. til right off, if doses are more efficient at reducing healthcare costs compared to other treatments, Pharmaceutical companies burn downnister benefit.Since R is at the heart of competition, each medicine lodge mustiness answer to these cost containment pressures cautiously and strategically in competing for healthcare expenditures. another(prenominal) historic aspect of this industry is technological change arising from the convergence of life and biologic sciences. Many disciplines now work together to uncover the chemical mechanisms that lie shtup our bodies and various diseases. Examples are molecular biology, cellular phone biology, biophysics, heritable science, evolutionary biology, and bioinformatics.As scientists see life from these saucily chemic and physical viewpoints, the ability to represent, turn and organize the massive data base on these theories creates critical. Because computers are very flexible scientific instruments (Rosenberg 1994), progress in information technology and computer science has broadened scientific frontiers for the life and biologic sciences. These advances have candid reinvigorated doors to 8 pom-pom more complex diseases, including some degenerative diseases of old age.These cure orbital cavitys are present opportunities for pharmaceutical companies since they address demographic and technical foul changes in advanced countries. Still, to take advantage of these opp ortunities requires information technology capabilities. Historically, the medicate industry has been relatively stable where the big players have remained unchanged for years. This has been due to various grounding barriers such as R costs, advertizing expense, and strong expertise in managing clinical running plays. It is challenging and big-ticket(prenominal) for a unsanded community to acquire this combination of skills cursorily.However, there are signs the industry and un rid ofable mix of skills may be changing. There have been some(prenominal) cross national mergers especially between U. S. and European companies. In addition, impudently biotech companies are very respectable at base research, which may force pharmaceutical R to transform itself. For example, no single company even among the bare-ass mega-companies is outsized enough to cover all sassy-fangled areas of expertise and therapeutic initiatives. Thus, numerous a(prenominal) competitors have had to form strategic alliances to engage or admission fee unexampled technologies and to get clean commercialize places. Conversely, a stand-alone company underside have a masses to lose.The challenge facing large pharmaceutical companies is how fast and how efficaciously they stomach move to foster both technological intention and cost containment without exposing themselves to too much risk. The pharmaceutical industry in all of Mercks study(ip) markets reflects these cost containment pressures, the need to harmonize valuable and time consuming clinical trials, and the impact of extensive regulations. Information technology has had its impacts too. For example, to react to these challenges Merck is using more management techniques based on consensus decision making among head functional managers.This requires better communication support using e-mail and groupware combined with face to face communication. This is part of an industry veer towards great duplica te decision making in R&D and less(prenominal) ordered decision making where A must first concur on a project forrader moving to B, etc presently all elements of the firm evaluate the project simultaneously at each 9 stage. In this manner, Merck has significantly reduced coordination costs while centralizing and speeding the overall decision making bear on. Additionally, first-tier irms have had to follow a cause in R&D strategies that progressively use information technologies. Exchange of data and ideas across national borders has become relatively easy, and contracts may tell access to another companys database. Because legion(predicate) an(prenominal) companies share similar R instruments and methods, one companys instruments may be compatible with other companies. Indeed, the crook towards greater use of Web-based technology in R and other operations may change our notion of a firm and its boundaries. Firms may eventually be characterized by familiarity creating capa bilities (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995).Having more ways to go with other companies makes frequent communication with greater nuance possible. This supports the trend towards more strategic alliances unless overtaken by the creation of larger firms through ride outd mergers. This is also partial tonely due to the nature of the industry which is part of the attractive chemical industry where changes in technologies are rapid and lots discontinuous. It wherefore requires different management skills from other technology based industries, especially as the neckledge unavoidable for knowledgeability tends to be more specialize thus demanding less coordination than assembly industries.Transferring mass production know-how to R is also limited. Still, the U. S. and European industries have been undergoing massive reorganization to achieve economies of scope and scale in R and selling where firms are taking advantage of the fact that the U. S. industry is much less regulated than n early foreign industries (Bogner and doubting doubting Thomas 1996). The U. S. companies grew after World contend II due to a huge sign market combined with the world(a) market for antibiotics this was before British firms began to recapture market share.At that time, European firms did not have the resources to distri plainlye medicines directly to U. S. doctors. The European recovery period gave U. S. firms enough time to take advantage of antibiotics. Then, when the U. S. market became saturated, U. S. 10 firms expanded into global markets in the early 1960s. This forced U. S. firms to veer their R as well. At the same time, in 1962 amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic turn increased the rigor of drug regulation creating an adit barrier to industry R that favored large established firms (Bogner and Thomas 1996).The U. S. effectively tightened their regulations after their industry had acquired decent R skills and resources. This timing seems to account for todays ind ustry success. Another factor is that unlike the European industry, U. S. firms had few incentives to integrate vertically. During the War the soldiery distributed antibiotics. Therefore, the U. S. firms were generally bulk chemical producers such as Merck and Phizer or sellers of branded drugs such as Abbott and Upjohn. At the end of the War, only a few firms such as Squibb were fully integrated.However, as promotion and other downstream functions became more critical, controlling functions such as distribution became a strategic objective. To accomplish this they acquired other firms (Merck acquired Sharpe and Dohine and Phizer acquired Roerig), developing working out via merger and learnedness as a business strategy and core competency. This inspection and repaired lay the foundation for subsequent industry consolidation. Today, American healthcare is based on the intuitive feeling that while making progress in science is the best way to answer medical problems, cost contai nment is also big.As a result, while American healthcare is the to the highest degree pricy in the world, it is also not obtainable to everyone and is the to the highest degree subject to cost scrutiny. Indeed, since drugs are just one way to improve health, consumers should want to remain healthy and choose cost effective elbow room to do this. However, the reality is that insurance systems covering different services give incentives and disincentives for particular care (Schweitzer 1997). Thus, coordinated adjustment of worths for healthcare is necessary to get markets for healthcare products to work better. In the U. S. , this has led to a habitual policy push for HMOs.These healthcare purchasers have in turn set the proceeds schemes available to healthcare providers such as pharmaceutical companies so as to reduce transaction costs (Ikegami and Campbell 1996) 11 and promote innovation. These festerings and trends are putting more pressure on major firms to put more r esources into R&D, to focus more critically on just estimable drug suppuration for the global market, and to be more careful in convocation information on clinical trials and side effects. The most beta market for Merck in this regard is the U. S. where NTH has pursued a unified approach.This is because the NIH (The National Institutes of Health) has actively supported prefatory life science research in U. S. universities, especially after World War II. NSF (National Science Foundation) also encouraged quislingism between academia and industry with partial funding by the government. Other federal official and state funding has been meaning(a) to the scientific community as well, especially in ergonomics. In ergonomics, the funding of canonical research has led to a complex i mussiness of university-industry interaction that implys gene patenting and the immediate print of results (Rabinow 1996).U. S. drug companies are of course profit motivated but are regulated by the FDA (Federal Drug Administration) which is slopped active its drug approvals, demanding clear scientific grounds in clinical research as its operation is basically science oriented. Product R&D and Clinical Trials Still, disrespect this R&D support, industry political economy are driven by pharmaceutical R&Ds very lengthy appendage, smooth of discovering, developing and sireing to market hot good drugs with the latter heavily primed(p) by the drug approval process in major markets such as the U.S. , Europe and Japan6. These new therapeutic ethical products fall into four broad categories (U. S. Congress, OTA 1993) one, new chemical entities (NCEs) new therapeutic entities (NTEs) new therapeutic molecular compounds never before used or tested in humans two, drug delivery mechanisms new approaches to delivering therapeutic agents at the desired venereal infection to the desired part of the body three, 6 Ethical drugs are biological and medicative chemicals advertised a nd promoted primarily to the medical, drugstore, and allied professions.Ethical drugs include products available only by ethical drug as well as some over-the-counter drugs (Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association 1970-1991). 12 adjoining stage products new combinations, formulations, dosing forms, or dosing strengths of vivacious compounds that must be tested in humans before market introduction four, generic products copies of drugs not protected by patents or other exclusive market rights. From the viewpoint of major pharmaceutical firms such as Merck, NCEs are the most important for the R of forward-looking drugs that drive industry success.Since it is a risky and very expensive process, understanding a companys R&D and drug approval process is critical to understanding the firms strategy and competitiveness both domestically and globally. Statistics indicate that only about 1 in 60,000 compounds synthesized by laboratories can be regarded as highly successful (U. S. Co ngress, OTA 1993). Thus, it is very important to stop the R process whenever one recognizes success is not likely.Chemists and biologists used to decide which drugs to pursue, but R is now more taxonomic and is a collective company decision since it can involve expenditures of $250 to $350 zillion prior to market launch, thus the need for more parallel decision making. Key factors in the decision making process are asked costs and returns, the behavior of competitors, liability concerns, and possible future government policy changes (Schweitzer 1997). Therefore, stage reviews during drug R are common, and past go outs in developing, manufacturing, restrictive approvals, and marketing can provide ample guidance.NCEs are notice either through screening active compounds or designing new molecules. at once synthesized, they go through a rigorous testing process. Their pharmacologic activity, therapeutic promise, and toxicity are tested using disjointed cell cultures and anim al(prenominal)s as well as computer models. It is then modified to a related compound to optimize its pharmacological activity with less undesirable biological comelyties (U. S. Congress, OTA 1993). Once preclinical studies are completed and the NCE has been proven safe on animals, the drug grass applies for Investigational New Drug (IND) status.If it receives approval, it starts cast I clinical trials to establish the 13 tolerance of healthy human subjects at different doses to study pharmacological effects on humans in anticipate dosage levels. It also studies its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion patterns. This stage requires careful supervision since one does not know if the drug is safe on humans. During anatomy II clinical trials a relatively small number of patients act in controlled trials of the compounds potential multipurposeness and short term risks.Phase threesome trials gather precise information on the drugs strong point for specific indica tions, determine whether it produces a broader range of contrary effects than those exhibited in the small phase I and II trials. Phase III trials can involve several 100 to several thousand subjects and are extremely expensive. Stage reviews occur before and during each phase, and drug development may be terminated at any point in the pipeline if the risk of failure and the added cost needed to prove effectiveness outweigh the weighted probability of success.There is a data and safety monitoring jury in the U. S.. This group has access to unblinded data throughout the conduct of a trial but does not let anyone else know what the data shows until it is necessary. For example, they will not go bad the efficacy data until the trial reaches a point where it seems appropriate to recommend fish filet it because the null hypothesis of efficacy has been legitimate or rejected. The FDA will usually insist on the drug proving efficacy with respect to ameliorating a disease before gi ving approval.If clinical trials are successful, the sponsor seeks FDA marketing approval by submitting a New Drug Application (NDA). If approved, the drug can be marketed immediately, though the FDA oftentimes requires some amendments before marketing can proceed (Schweitzer 1997). However, successful drug development and sales not only requires approval of therapeutic value and validity but also that the manufacturing process meet soused best-practice standards. To meet U. S. regulations, Phase IV trials are required. Manufacturers selling drugs must notify the FDA periodically about the 14 erformance of their products. This surveillance is intentional to detect uncommon, yet serious, adverse reactions typically not revealed during premarket testing. This postapproval process is especially important when phase III trials were completed under smaller fast cart track reviews. These additional studies usually include use by children or by those using duple drugs where potential interactions can be important (Schweitzer 1997). Furthermore, because drug development costs are so high relative to production costs, patent protection is another key aspect of a companys management strategy. on a lower floor U. S. aw, one must apply for a patent within one year of developing an NCE or the innovation enters the public domain. Therefore, patenting is usually early in the development cycle or prior to file the NCE. But as this begins the patent life, trim the approval period extends a drugs effective revenue life under patent. This makes managing clinical trials and the approval process an important strategic variable. Although creating a drug pipeline through various stages of development is relatively standardized, it is changing as companies use different methods to reduce time and related costs of new drug development.Companies are continuously pressuring the administration to reduce NDA review times. As a consequence, the FDA did introduce an accelerated ap proval process for new drugs in oncology, HIV (AIDS) and other life threatening illnesses. A old(prenominal) feature of this new fast track review is the use of surrogate end points, or proxies for clinical end points which are metric by laboratory set but lack supporting clinical outcomes data. Accelerated approval speeds new drugs to market saving companies tens of millions of dollars in negative bullion flow.However, it does not generate clinical determine that insurers and managed care organizations demand. Countering this situation is thus the trend among drug firms to increase the complexity of their analyses during clinical trials. Companies have begun to use cost-effective analysis in their evaluation of new drugs in assessing competing product development investment alternatives and by integrating cost effectiveness analysis into their clinical trials. They also try to capture look of life 15 measures such as how patients perceive their lives while using the new drug. Companies vary their analysis by country (Rettig 1997) since measures of effectiveness shift match to clinical practice, accessibility to doctors, and what different cultures value as important. There are no universal measures of the quality of life. At present, the components measured depend largely on the objectives of each researcher but some companies are trying to introduce more systematic measures. Nevertheless, no matter what components are elect for these studies, capturing, storing and using the data requires sophisticated software and data base management techniques which must be correlated with various families of molecules.Also, to avoid the moral hazard of focusing on the weaknesses in a competitors drug or molecule, some analysts argue companies should examine all domains and their components (Spilker 1996) and move towards sum upd performance standards. Furthermore, quality of life measures should only be used when they are of practical use to doctors in treating pa tients (Levine 1996). Such judgments should be sensitive and cognizant and should cover criteria related and important to a broad spectrum of patients while balancing measures which can be easily gathered and those that are more complex due to eightfold treatments.These trends make clinical trials and data gathering complex and expensive and put a premium on a firms ability to manage the process efficiently, including creating and using large patient and treatment databases. Manufacturing and Process R&D The research process differs from production. Yet, both are important, oddly the firms knowledge of scale-up. This is nasty because production requires uniformity at every stage. Making the average chemical opus constant is not enough.Careful scale-up is essential to avoid contamination. Variations from the mean in commercial-grade production must be very small. This requires constant control of variables such as the forwardness of raw materials, solvents, reaction condition s, and yields. Often, experience will help achieve purer output in the intermediate processes. This better output alleviates problems in later processes. Thus, there is a instruction curve in process R which starts at 16 the laboratory. An important bankers bill is between continuous process and green goddess process.In the continuous process, raw materials and sub-raw materials go into a flow process that produces output continuously. This continuous process is more difficult because many parameters and conditions have to be kept constant. This requires a good understanding of both optimizing the chemical process and maintaining safeguards against abnormal conditions. However, continuous processes are less dangerous and require fewer people to control at the situate than batch processing where the chemicals are produced in batches, put in pill form and then stored for future distribution and sale (Takeda 1992).The following compares initial process R once a compound is discove red and commercial manufacturing for a representative chemical entity proceeds (Pisano 1996). Comparison research process and commercial production for representative chemical 17 Process R in chemical pharmaceuticals involves three stages (1) process research, where basic process chemistry (synthetic route) is explored and chosen (2) aviate development, where the process is run and refined in an intermediate-scale pilot plant and (3) technology transport and startup, where process is run at a commercial manufacturing site (Pisano 1997).Pisano argues that the scientific base of chemistry is more mature than biotechnology and this difference accounts for the more extensive use of computer simulations in drugs made by chemical synthesis than biotechnology-based drugs. Codifying the knowledge in chemistry and chemical engineering in software has a higher explanatory power than in biotechnology. In chemistry, many scientific laws are available for process variables such as pressure, vo lume, and temperature.Computer models can acquire these in response to given parameters to predict cost, throughput and yield (Pisano 1997). By contrast, biotechnology has aspects that match art dependent on an opprators skill more than science which only requires the proper formulation. This is particularly true for large biotechnology process (Pisano 1997). Simulation is thus less reliably extrapolated to commercial production. An additional factor is the importance of purification after large-scale production in bioreactors in biotechnology-based drugs.It is not rare at this stage of line of descent and purification that commercial application becomes impossible, even though the scale-up is successful. Since avoiding contamination is the key in biotechnology-based drugs, extracting and purifying a small add up of the desired materials from a large come up of broth is critical. This process is done using filters, chromatography, and other methods specific to organisms (Koide 1994). Technological Factors All scientific frontiers shanghai pharmaceutical companies.Since no company can be an expert on everything, what technology to develop in-house and what to certify or subcontract have become important issues. In general, pharmaceutical companies were unbelieving of new developments in small biotechnology firms. Yet the latter now provide new techniques in basic research and fermentation to the MNCs. Other pharmaceutical 18 companies then tend to follow when competitors usurp ideas from less well known biotech companies. This is why many such companies announce computer program deals with drug companies to get more financial resources and opportunities.Biotechnology based pharmaceuticals have entered a new development stage which requires the capital, manufacturing and marketing expertise of the large companies. New drug discovery methods and biotechnology each demand skills different from earlier times. Emerging biotech companies offer new ideas an d research tools. Other new technologies such as stripping out side effects, specialized drug delivery systems, and antisense which cancels out the disease causing messages of faulty ribonucleic acid also come from biotechnology (Fortune 1997).These are promising areas of drug research and potential products. Further, these biotech companies develop new drugs more quickly than large firms. Where they often have obstruction is in managing clinical trials and the approval process, an area where large firms have considerable experience and expertise, including sophisticated software for tracking the large data bases and handling the new computerized application procedure. In addition, biotechnology demands skills in large scale commercial production which smaller startups may not possess.Thus, close tie beam with large firms is logical and efficient, and one should see more future alliances and joint surmises, though outsourcing to organizations that will manage clinical trials is growing. Another important factor which further encourages distinctiveness in a network of companies is the industrys heavy use of information technology. Indeed, software strategies have become an important part of the industry through their impact on R, drug approval, including clinical trials, and control of manufacturing.If decisions in a science based industry are generally driven by knowledge creation capability dependent on human resources, having information share-out and access mechanisms so complementary capabilities can be efficiently exchanged and used becomes key to successful corporate strategy, especially when that knowledge is growing and becoming increasingly diverse. 19 There is some evidence bespeaking when innovation is dependent on trial and shift, it is best done when many players try different strategies and are held responsible for the projects they choose (Columbia technology Conference on Quality kinfolk 1997).If the large drug companies can successful ly form principal-agent relationships with biotechnology companies doing advanced research in a particular area in the same way that Japanese parts manufacturers have with large assemblers, there may be opportunities for major breakthroughs without the drug companies having to put such trial and error processes inside the company where they may be less easy to manage. If the make or misdirect decision in a science based industry is generally driven by knowledge creation capability dependent on human resources, the basis for new product, i. . drug development, becomes more dependent on the nature and installation of information exchange between groups and individuals than asset ownership. Creating information sharing and access mechanisms so that complementary capabilities can be efficiently exchanged and used then becomes the key to successful corporate strategy in knowledge based industries, especially when that knowledge base is growing and becoming increasingly diverse as in t he ethical drug industry. Another information sharing issue related to biotech is pharmacology.Classical pharmacology models are often irrelevant for biotech-based drugs. While some proteins express their activities across other species, others can be more species specific. Neither little results nor good animal trial results need be predictive for humans. Particularly difficult problems are those related to toxicology since some animals develop neutralizing antibodies (Harris 1997). Technical support systems are important in biotechnology as well. unmatchable is transgenic animals. They provide information on the theatrical role of particular genes to a disease.This is done by inserting genes that have the function of expressing the phenotype, or crossbreeding heterozygotic animals to produce knockout animals that suffer from catching metabolic diseases. Transgenic animals are relevant to early phase clinical trials since the data from these animals run useful data on dose-s election 20 and therapeutic rations in human studies. In addition, they offer hints to which variables are secondary. This simplifies the clinical trial design.In general, significant input in the design and running of phase I and II trials must come from the bench scientists who make the molecule (Harris 1997). Since clinical trials for biotech drugs lack clear guidelines, inhouse communication among drug discovery, preclinical and clinical trials is important, especially due to the increased use of transgenic animals bred to examine inherited diseases. This process in phase I/II trials can be greatly facilitated by information sharing technologies and acts as another device driver towards a more integrated approach to decision making using IT.Structure-Based Drug (Rational Drug) Design This is also true of structure-based drug (rational drug) design or molecular molding which is a range of computerized techniques based on theoretical chemistry methods and experimental data used either to break up molecules and molecular systems or to predict molecular and biological properties (Cohen 1996). Traditional methods of drug discovery brood of taking a lead structure and developing a chemical program for finding analog molecules exhibiting the desired biological properties in a systematic way. The nitial compounds were found by chance or random screening. This process involved several trial and error cycles developed by healthful chemists using their intuition to select a candidate analog for further development. This traditionalistic method has been supplemented by structure-based drug design (Cohen 1996) which tries to use the molecular targets involved in a disorder. The relationship between a drug and its sensory receptor is complex and not completely known. The structure-based ligand design attempts to create a drug that has a good fit with the receptor.This fit is optimized by minimizing the energies of interaction. But, this determination of optimum i nteraction zilch of a ligand in a known receptor site remains difficult. Computer models permit manipulations such as superposition and energy computing that are difficult with mechanical models. They also provide an exhaustive way to conk out molecules and to save and store this data for later 21 use or after a research chemist has left. However, models must still be tested and used and eventually, chemical intuition is required to analyze the data (Gund 1996).Then the drug must proceed through animal and clinical trials. Still the idea behind this modeling is the principle that a molecules biological properties are related to its structure. This reflects a better understanding in the mid-seventies of biochemistry. So rational drug design has also benefited from biotechnology. In the 1970s and mid-eighties, drug discovery was still grounded in organic chemistry. Now rational drug design provides customized drug design synthesized specifically to activate or inactivate particul ar physiological mechanisms.This technique is most useful in particular therapeutic areas. For example, histamine receptor knowledge was an area where firms first took advantage of rational design since its underlying mechanism was understood early (Bogner and Thomas 1996). The head start point is the molecular target in the body. So one is working from demand rather than finding a use for a new molecule. The scientific concepts behind this approach have been available for a long time. The existence of receptors and the lock-and-key concepts currently considered in drug design were formulated by P.Ehrlich (1909) and E. Fischer (1894). Its subtleties were understood, though, only in the 1970s with the use of X-ray crystallography to reveal molecular computer architecture of isolated pure samples of protein targets (Cohen 1996). The first times of this technology conceived in the 1970s considered molecules as two topological dimensional entities. In 1980s it was used together with q uantitative structureactivity relationships (QSAR) concepts. The first coevals of this technology has proven to be useful only for the optimization of a given series (Cohen 1996).The second generation of rational drug design has considered the full detailed property of molecules in the three dimensional (3-D) formula. This difference is significant, since numerical parameters in the QSAR approaches do not tell the full story about the interaction between a ligand and a protein (Cohen 1996). 22 This has been facilitated by software and hardware becoming less costly. Thus many scientists are paid attention to computational techniques that are easier to use than mechanical models.This underscores the role of instrumentation in scientific research stressed by Rosenberg (1994). Availability of new instruments, including computers, has opened new opportunities in technological applications and furthered research in new directions. Three dimensional artistic creation particularly suits the needs of a multi-disciplinary team since everyone has different chemical intuition but appreciates the 3-D image. Rosenberg (1994) notes scientists who move across disciplines establish those concepts and tools to another scientific discipline such as from physics to biology and chemistry.This suggests the importance of sharing instruments, particularly computer images and databases that help people work and think together. The preponderating systems of molecular modeling calculations are UNIX workstations, particularly three dimensional graphics workstations such as those from Silicon Graphics. But other hardware such as desktop Macintoshes and MS-DOS personal computers on the low end and computer servers and supercomputers on the high end have been used. Computational power is required for more complex calculations and this guides the weft of hardware.A mannikin of commercial software packages are available from $50-$5,000 for PC-based systems to $100,000 or more for supe rcomputers. Universities, research institutes, and commercial laboratories develop these packages. Still, no one system meets all the molecular modelers needs. The industry therefore desperately needs an open, high-level programing environment allowing various applications to work together (Gund 1996). This means those who for strategic conditions want to take advantage of this technology must now do their own software development. This is the competitive software compulsion facing many drug producers.In turn, the better they can select systems, develop their capabilities, and manage their use, the more successful they will be in drug development and in managing other aspects of the drug pipeline. 23 The choice of hardware is based on software availability and the performance criteria needed to run it. Current major constraints are the power of graphics programs and the way the chemist interacts with the data and its representation (Hubbard 1996). apple computers have frequently been used in R because of superior graphics, though this edge may be eroded by new PCs using Pentium MMX as well as moves to more open systems.However, Dr. Popper, Mercks CIO, feels that the real issue, is the software packages for the MAC that research scientists know and rely on but that are not yet available for Windows NT. Thus, MACs exsert to be used for Medical R&D which keeps the Windows market from developing. There are, in addition, the elements of inertia, emotional attachment and training which are apparent at major medical schools too. In sum, rational design has opened a wide range of new research based on a firms understanding of biochemical mechanisms. This means howling(a) opportunities to enter new therapeutic areas.However, since rational design is very expensive, it has increase entry costs and the minimum effective size for pharmaceutical firms by putting a premium on those with a sequence of change generating drugs. It also has favored firms with broader pro duct lines able to spread the costs of equipment over many projects and to transfer knowledge across therapeutic areas, contributing to the increased cost of new drugs through higher R and systems support spending (Bogner and Thomas 1996). A similar analysis applies to the use of other new technologies because major U. S. nd Japanese companies to discover and develop drugs systematically, such as combinatorial chemistry, robotic high-throughput screening, advances in medical genetics, and bioinformatics. These technologies incite not only R but also the organization and the way they deal with other organizations as many new technologies are complementary. For example, high-throughput screening automates the screening process to identify compounds for further testing or to optimize the lead compound. Thus, both regulatory and technological change have raised the advantage of developing innovative drugs, even 24 hough it is inherently risky and forces firms to develop better skills i n using information technology to support the process. The Pharmaceutical Industry in the United States As explained above, healthcare and the pharmaceutical industry are closely intertwined, especially in the U. S.. Ever since the election of the Clinton Administration, U. S. healthcare has been the focus of heated debate. The set of pharmaceuticals in particular is one of the most controversial aspects of the industry. Estimates of the cost of bringing a new drug to market are up to over $250 million (DiMasi et. l. 1991). However, once drugs are on the market, the costs of manufacturing, marketing and distribution are relatively small. This heart-to-heart connection between marginal cost and the market price seems to require further justification for drug pricing. While the lucid answer lies in the high decided cost of drug development and the expensive and time consuming approval process prior to any positive cash flow, the answer is still not easy. Furthermore, the drug mark et is very complex for several reasons. First, there are many drug classes for which only a few products exist.Secondly, FDVIOs (health alimentation organizations) and other managed-care plans can negotiate stiff discounts because they are able to control the prescription decisions made by their participating physicians and because they buy in large quantities. These health organizations are highly price sensitive. This means drug prices are substantially determined by the purchasers demand elasticity. This demand in turn determines investment decisions (Schweitzer 1997). Thirdly, the market for pharmaceuticals is highly segmented, both domestically and internationally, and price discrimination between and within national markets is common.Research studies cannot even agree on a common measure of wholesale price. Indeed, no measure captures actual transaction prices, including discounts and rebates (Schweitzer 1997). Fourth, consumers do not have enough scientific knowledge to a ssess different drugs. Thus, gatekeepers such as doctors are important (Hirsch 1975). 25 Yet, the current trend is towards managed care and HMOs who closely control costs. This development clearly indicates physicians are losing some impropriety in drug selection. Thus it is not surprising the market share of generic drugs has increased from 15% to over 41% between 1983 and 1996.This has forced the ethical drug manufacturers to communicate both more effectively with the HMOs and managed care organizations in addition to physicians and to portray the improved efficacy of their products as compared with generics. The acquisition of PBMs (pharmacy benefit managers) by pharmaceutical companies is an important development in this regard. Physicians now have to prescribe drugs available in the formularies of the managed-care organization. PBMs suggest cheaper alternatives to physicians for a given therapeutic benefit to save money.Eighty percent of the 100 million patient/member PBM mar ket as of 1993 is controlled by the five big PBMs (Schweitzer 1997). In turn, when PBMs and mail-order companies expand, the small pharmacies lose the data necessary to examine various drug interactions. Since current U. S. law protects the propriety data of pharmacists and pharmacy chains, information on prescription for those patients who use pharmacies and mail-order companies actually becomes fragmented. It is likely this development could affect pharmacists jobs as well. A fifth reason is FDA approval does not mean new drugs are better than old ones.As state above, this has pressured drug companies to prove the effectiveness in cost and quality of life their drugs bring to patients. Recently, drug companies have often tried to show how their drugs can help patients set a normal quality of life. As already described, these concerns complicate the design of clinical trials. Consolidation among wholesalers, the greater complexity of clinical trials and globalization favor firms with substantial resources and are part of the reason for the industrys merger trend, especially between U.S. and European companies. The leading pharmaceutical firms ranked by 1994 sales are as follows (Scrip Magazine, Jan. 1996), with five of them the result of cross border mergers. Merck ranks 2d 26 27 *3 Comparison is based on U. S. dollars *4 Calculation based on the sales of companies before mergers *5 Including nonprescription(a) (over the counter drugs) *6 Excludes sales through strategic alliances Merck Merck is a multibillion dollar pharmaceutical firm with a long account statement going back to the 19th ascorbic acid in the U. S. and the 17th century in Germany.While in the past they have diversify into areas like animal health care, they are now very focused almost exclusively on human health, in particular, on ethical branded prescription drugs within human health care since they have found this is their most moneymaking business area. Also, given the many opportuni ties that exist, it will demand all their capital and energy for the foreseeable future. It has therefore spun off its animal health care business to a joint venture and sold its potency chemical business.This strategy and motivation is similar to Takedas focus on human health, whose market is more lucrative than its other businesses. The company appears to stress their ability to bring innovative drugs to market. Merck briefly tried to produce generic versions of their drugs, but found it was not value the investment. In addition, they now assume psyche else will produce their nonprescription(a) (over the counter) versions too. This strategic focus is now underscored by their active formation of strategic alliances. For example, in the over-the-counter medicine market in the U. S. nd Europe, but not in Japan, Merck relies on Johnson & Johnson through a joint venture with J to market, distribute and sell the otc versions of Mercks prescription drugs. This means Merck has seen t he OTC market as one way to prolong the revenue stream for some of its products after their patents expire. In Japan, Mercks agreement is with Chugai Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. They create a joint venture in September 1996 to develop and market Mercks OTC medicines there (Merck 1996 Annual Report). Moreover, Merck and Rhone-Poulenc have denote plans to combine their animal health and bird genetics businesses to form 28Merial, a new company that will be the worlds largest in animal health and poultry genetics (Merck 1996 Annual Report). Their primary strategic focus on ethical drugs seems appropriate, but as explained above it is also critical with respect to this strategy that they maintain relationships with those in scientifically related fields. Their work with Rhone-Poulenc must be examined in this light since improving their competence in the genetic business seems a good part of their strategy given developments in biotechnology and the Human Genome Project. This is because biotechnology-related drugs are often species-specific (Harris 1997).More knowledge about the genetic make-up of human and animal bodies may provide some insights into the appropriate choice of animals in pre-clinical trials from which to extrapolate observations to humans. Since this extrapolation is never sodding(a) and you have to do animal experiments anyway, they have added to their competence in genetics via a joint venture with Du Pont called Du Pont-Merck Pharmaceuticals Co, whose investors are E. I. Du Pont (50%) and Merck (50%). This firm has capabilities in fermentation, genetic engineering/rDNA, cell culture, hybridoma, protein engineering, and tissue culture.By forming this alliance, Merck was able to exchange its strengths with Du Pont, an early investor in biotechnology. Du Pont-Merck Pharmaceutical has also developed its own drugs in cardiovascular disease. 7 Like other pharmaceutical companies, they continue to sell their branded products as long as they can once t hey have gone off patent but at a lower price in order to meet generic competition. Cost conscious HMOs increase this downward(prenominal) price pressure. Yet, according to Merck some demand for the branded product continues once they adjust the price downward.This is due to better quality, lucid dosage, and brand awareness of the original. Strategically, Merck sees itself as a growth company with a growth target of about 15% per year. This signals a continuing need for cash flow, i. e. from existing drugs, and a Merck sold its share to Dupont in 1998 for over $4billion, apparantly due to its ability to manage more drugs itself. 29 constant flow of new drugs, i. e. from R&D. They need this growth to continue to offer their shareholders the return they expect and to attract the personnel they need to develop drugs which is their corporate mission.Their products now cover 15-16 therapeutic categories. In five years this will expand to between 20 and 25 categories depending on the su ccess of various stages of drug testing. Important new products in the pipeline include Singulair for asthma, Aggrastat for cardiovascular disorders, Maxalt for migraine headaches, and VIOXX, an anti-inflammatory drug, which works as a selective inhibitor targeted at rheumatoid arthritis. They are in phase III trials for all of these new drugs. Propecia for male pattern baldness late received FDA approval. Mercks R is done internationally.To avoid duplicate investment, each research center tends to be focused. For example, the Neuroscience Research Centre in the Untied Kingdom focuses on compounds which affect the nervous system. Maxalt was developed in this Centre. The one laboratory in Italy studies viruses while the one laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan (Banyu Pharmaceuticals) emphasizes the circulatory system, antibiotics, and anti-cancer research (Giga, Ueda and Kuramoto 1996). This concentration pattern often reflects the comparative strengths in R and the therapeutic demand stru cture in each local market.Still, selecting the appropriate R projects while critical to their success is very difficult. This is because no discipline in science has as blurred a distinction between basic and applied research as biotechnology. The distinction is usually not vindicated because applied research often contributes to basic research. Indeed, in molecular biology, science often follows technology. Still, as a general approach, Merck tries to focus on applied research and development rather than basic science. They rely on universities and smaller biotech firms for the later.However, they do some basic research. For instance, th